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Preface ... ........................................... ix List of figures ......................................... xiii List of tables .......................................... xvii List of symbols .. ....................................... xix List of abbreviations ..................................... xxiii 1 Introduction ................ ......................... 1 2 Drift ice material. ................................... 9 2.1 Sea ice covef" .. ..... ...... . .............. 9 2.1.1 Sea ice landscape .......................... .10 2.1.2 Sea ice zones ............................ 15 2.1.3 Sea ice charting ........................... 17 2.2 Ice floes to drift ice particles ........................ 19 2.2.1 Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 19 2.2.2 Size and shape of ice floes .......................... 22 2.3 Thickness of drift ice ................................. . 27 2.3.1 Basic characteristics ................... ......... 27 2.3.2 Measurement methods ............. .............. 30 2.3.3 Ice thickness distribution ................... ..... 34 2.4 Sea ice ridges ............ ... . . 35 2.4.1 Structure of ridges ................... ...... 35 2.4.2 Statistical distributions of ridge size and occurrence. .... 38 5.2 Atmospheric and oceanic drag forces. ........ ......... 118 5.2.1 Planetary boundary layers. ................... . . 118 5.2.2 Drag force formulae ............................ 125 5.3 Scale analysis and dimension analysis ....................... 130 5.3.1 Magnitudes ................. ............ 130 5.3.2 Dimensionless form .......................... 133 5.3.3 Basin scales ............................... 137 5.4 Dynamics of a single ice floe ......................... 138 6 Free drift ................................... .... 141 6.1 Steady-state solution ............................. 141 6.1.1 Classical case ............................. 143 6.1.2 One-dimensional channel flow ................... 146 6.1.3 Shallow waters ............................ 148 6.1.4 Linear model ..... ................ . . . . . 148 6.2 Non-steady-state solution .......................... 149 6.2.1 One-dimensional flow with quadratic surface stresses . . . 149 6.2.2 Linear model ............................. 150 6.2.3 Drift of a single floe ......................... 152 6.3 Linear, coupled ice-ocean model .................. .. 154 6.3.1 General solution ............................ 155 6.3.2 Inertial oscillations .................. ....... 156 6.3.3 Periodic forcing .......................... 158 6.3.4 Free drift velocity spectrum .................... 159 6.4 Spatial aspects of free drift ......................... 161 6.4.1 Advection ............................... . 163 6.4.2 Divergence and vorticity ...................... . 163 7 Drift in the presence of internal friction ..................... . 165 7.1 The role of internal friction ......................... . 165 7.1.1 Examples. ............. ................ 166 7.1.2 Frequency spectrum . ................... .170 7.1.3 Landfast ice ............................. 171 7.2 Channel flow .................................. 173 7.2.1 Creep .................................. 174 7.2.2 Plastic flow ............................... 175 7.3 Zonal sea ice drift .............................. 177 7.3.1 Steady-state velocity: wind-driven case.............. 178 7.3.2 Steady state with ocean currents ................ 182 7.3.3 Steady-state ice thickness and compactness profiles ... . 182 7.3.4 Viscous models ............................ 184 7.3.5 Marginal ice zone .......................... . 185 7.3.6 Circular ice drift ........................... 187 7.4 Modelling of ice tank experiments .................... 191 7.4.1 Drift ice dynamics in a tank .................... 191 7.4.2 Case study ................................. 194 viii Contents 8 Numerical modelling. ................................ 199 8.1 Numerical solution .............................. 199 8.1.1 System of equations ........................ .. 199 8.1.2 Numerical technology ...................... 2202 8.1.3 Calibration/Validation ........................ 205 8.2 Examples of sea ice dynamics models .................. 206 8.2.1 The Campbell and Doronin models .............. 206 8.2.2 Hibler model ............... ............. 208 8.2.3 The AIDJEX model ........................ 211 8.2.4 The Baltic Sea model ....................... .212 8.3 Short-term modelling applications ................... .. 214 8.3.1 Research work .................. ......... 214 8.3.2 Sea ice forecasting ........................... 217 8.4 Long-term modelling applications ..................... 222 8.4.1 Arctic regions .................. .......... 222 8.4.2 Antarctic regions .................. ........ 224 8.4.3 Baltic Sea ................................ 224 9 Use and need for knowledge on ice drift ....................... 229 9.1 Science ............................................ 229 9.2 Practice ........................................ 232 9.3 Final comments ................................ 236 10 Study problems ................. .................. . 239 Chapter 1 ..................................... 239 Chapter 2 ................. .................... . . 240 Chapter 3 ................................... .. 240 Chapter 4 ................................... ... 241 Chapter 5.... .. ............................ .. 241 Chapter 6 ..................................... 242 Chapter 7 ................:. ............... .:'. .. ...243 Chapter 8 .. ................................... 243 11 References .................................... 245 Index ................. .............................. 261
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication: Sea ice drift, Sea ice Mathematical models