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PART I THE BACKGROUND
I The Justice Gap in Sexual Assault Cases 9
1.1 THE PROBLEM OF ATTRITION 9
1.2 THE LEGAL BACKGROUND 24
1.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 28
2 Stereotypes, Myths and Heuristics in the Perception of Sexual Assault 31
2.1 THE 'REAL RAPE' STEREOTYPE 31
2.2 RAPE MYTHS AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES ABOUT RAPE
VICTIMS 33
2.3 RAPE STEREOTYPES AND POLICE RESPONSES TO RAPE
COMPLAINTS 38
2.4 THE ATTRIBUTION OF BLAME TO VICTIMS OF RAPE 41
2.5 HEURISTICS IN THE PROCESS OF DECISION-MAKING
ABOUT SEXUAL ASSAULT 48
2.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50
3 The Problem of the Jury in Sexual Assault Trials .53
3.1 THE METHODOLOGY OF JURY STUDIES 53
3.2 DEALING WITH THE EVIDENCE 54
3.3 THE ROLE OF EXPERT TESTIMONY 57
3.4 THE JUDGE'S SUMMING-UP AND NON-VERBAL CUES 63
3.5 REACHING A VERDICT 64
3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 71
PART II NEW EVIDENCE
4 A Question of Attitude: Prospective Lawyers 75
4.1 STUDY 1: UNDERGRADUATE LAW STUDENTS AND
THE REAL RAPE STEREOTYPE 76
4.2 STUDIY 2: S(:HEMATIC PROCESSING BY VOCATIONAL
LA\V STUDENTS 85
5 A Question of Attitude: The General Public 99
5.1 STUDY 3: EXPLORING SCHEMATIC PROCESSING BY
MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC 100
5.2 STUDY 3: EVALUATING A RAPE-AWARENESS POSTER
CAMPAIGN 109
5.3 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS FROM THE
THREE STUDIES 119
6 Rape, Rape Trials and the Justice Gap: Some Views from the Bench
and Bar 125
6.1 METHODOLOGY OF THE INTERVIEW STUDY 125
6.2 THE PERCEIVED PROBLEMS 127
6.3 ATTITUDES TOWARDS RAPE AND THE JUSTICE GAP 138
6.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 141
7 Judges, Barristers and the Evidential Law in Action in Rape Cases 143
7.1 CORROBORATION 143
7.2 SEXUAL HISTORY 145
7.3 THIRD PARTY DISCLOSURE 151
7.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 158
PART III SOME POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
8 Law Reform 161
8.1 EVIDENTIAL ISSUES 161
8.2 CONSENT AND INTOXICATION 169
8.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 175
9 Improving Rape Trials 177
9.1 ABOLISHING THE JURY IN SEXUAL ASSAULT CASES 177
9.2 SCREENING AND SELECTING JURORS 180
9.3 ASSISTING THE JURY 181
9.4 MAKING THE JURY ACCOUNTABLE 186
9.5 EDUCATING LEGAL PROFESSIONALS 188
9.6 APPOINTMENT OF MORE FEMALE JUDGES? 195
9.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 196
10 Changing Public Attitudes 199
10.1 RAPE PREVENTION PROGRAMMES FOR COLLEGE
STUDENTS 199
10.2 SCHOOL-BASED INTERVENTIONS 200
(. FDi(',\lFIN Tle (,F\NI RAL PMlBLI( ABOU R \PE:
USING(; IF MEDIA 201
i.4 lCHAN(IN( NORMS AIBIOU F SE\XUiAL AGGRESSION 20
1 F.5 L\I.\RY AND CONCL.USIONS 2
I C(onclusion 209
IRfcrcilccs 213
Apcpendix 1 Evidential and Procedural Issues in the Law Relating to
Sexual Offences in England and Wales 235
Appendix 2 Interview Schedule for the Study Described in Chapters Six
and Seven 245
.\u1t/or Index 247
>.It)/'ct Index 255