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Preface 1 Chapter 1 Climate and Some Related Global Phenomena 9 1.1 Climate Classification 11 1.2 Why Different Climates? 13 1.3 Past Major Climate Changes 15 1.4 The Indian Summer Monsoon 19 1.5 El Ni7io and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 26 1.6 The Hydrological Cycle 32 1.7 Carbon Cycle 35 Chapter 2 Radiation and Greenhouse Gases 40 2.1 The Solar Radiation 41 2.2 Latitudinal Variations in Solar Radiation 44 2.3 Depletion of Solar Radiation 47 2.3.1 Absorption of solar radiation 48 2.3.2 Reflection of solar radiation 49 2.3.3 Scattering of solar radiation 50 2.4 Terrestrial Radiation 51 2.5 Role of Aerosols, Ozone, and Trace Gases 53 2.6 Disposition of Solar Radiation 56 2.7 The Radiation Balance 58 2.8 Greenhouse Gases and Atmospheric Chemistry 62 2.9 Radiative Forcings 64 2.9.1 Direct Effects 66 2.9.2 Indirect Effects 68 2.10 Forcing-Response Relationship 70 2.11 Global Warming Potentials 75 Chapter 3 Global Evidences of Changes in Climate and Environment 78 3.1 Melting of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 81 3.1.1 Himalayan lakes 81 3.1.2 North Pole ice cap 82 3.1.3 Antarctica ice shelves 83 3.1.4 Glaciers 83 3.2 Excessively Cold Winter in Europe 84 3.3 Bleaching of Great Barrier Reef 85 3.4 Ozone Hole 85 3.5 Asian Brown Cloud 88 Chapter 4 Evidences of Climatic and Environmental Changes in India 94 4.1 Indications of Warming 96 4.2 Increase in Fog Days 99 4.3 Snow Ablation and Snow Fall 105 4.4 Rainfall 106 4.5 Monsoon Depressions and Cyclones 109 4.6 Sea Level Rise 115 4.7 Water Stress 117 4.8 Mangrove Wetlands and Ecosystems 119 4.9 Deforestation and Desertification 121 4.10 Environmental Degradation 124 Chapter 5 Possible Impacts of Climate Change in India 129 5.1 Impact on Indian Agriculture 130 5.1.1 Direct effects of climate change on crops 131 5.1.2 Indirect effects on crops 134 5.2 Impacts on Forests 135 5.3 Impacts on Coastal Zones and Mangrove Ecosystems 142 5.4 Impacts on Mountain Ecosystems 146 Chapter 6 Clean Technology and Energy 148 6.1 Clean Development Mechanism 149 6.2 Some GEF-UNDP Projects for Low Carbon 152 6.3 Some Examples of Future Clean Technology 154 6.3.1 Methane digester 155 6.3.2 Biodiesel 155 6.3.3 Natural compost 156 6.3.4 Eco-friendly plastic 156 6.3.5 Eco-friendly paper making 157 6.4 Alternate Energy 158 6.4.1 Hydrogen 158 6.4.2 Bio-fuels 161 6.4.3 Solar energy 163 6.4.4 Wind energy 164 6.4.5 Hydroelectric power 165 6.4.6 Gobar gas 166 Chapter 7 Mitigation Efforts by the Government of India 169 7.1 GHG Emissions Estimation 171 7.2 Environmental Protection Policies 176 7.3 Collaboration with Global Agencies 177 7.4 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in India 180 7.5 National Science Programmes 185 Chapter 8 Issues of Concern in Some Important Sectors 189 8.1 Energy Use and Management 189 8.2 Sustainable Forest Management 199 8.3 Adaptation Measures in Agriculture 204 8.4 Coastal Zone Management 206 8.5 Conservation of Water 207 8.6 Biodiversity 210 8.7 Land Use and Land Cover Changes 213 Chapter 9 Uncertainties and Possible Approaches 216 9.1 Uncertainties in Climate Change 218 9.2 Integrated Methods of Observation and Data Use 221 9.3 Useful Predictions 225 9.4 Educating People on Climate Change 226 9.5 Development and Environment 230 9.6 Role of Environmentalists 233 9.7 Need for Effective Science-Policy Interface 235 9.8 Regional Climate Change 236 Appendix A 241 Appendix B 246 Appendix C 248 References 250