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CHAPTER 1: A SHORT HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS 1. Rights of a special kind .................................................................. 17 2. Natural law ...................................................................................... 20 3. The social contract ....................... ............................................ 23 4. The Right of Nature ............................................................................ 26 5. Natural rights .................................................................................. 28 6. Constitutionalization.......................................................................... 30 7. D ifferentiation ..................................................................................... 32 8. Internationalization ......................................................................... 36 9. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ....................................... 38 10. The International Covenants .......................................................... 40 Bibliography ......................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER2: THE STATE OF AFFAIRS OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL RIGHTS 1. Fighting poverty .............................................................................. 49 2 . S ocia l rig hts ....................................................................................... 51 3. Economic rights.................................................... ....................... 58 4. Cultural rights ..................................... ................................ 61 5. Differences between CP-rights, and ESC-rights ................................. 63 6. Bridging the gap.......................................................................... 64 7. Regional ESC-rights.............................................................................. 67 8. The treatment of ESC-rights in constitutions...................................... 69 9. Neglect of ESC-rights ...................................................................... 71 10. Why are ESC-rights neglected? ...................................................... 73 11. The argument against ESC rights as real, universal human rights.................................................................... 75 B ibliography ....................................................... .................................. 77 CHAPTER 3: A DIGNIFIED LIFE 1. Introd uctio n ........................................................................................ 82 2. Human dignity................................................... 83 3. Existing as a person ..................................................................... 85 4. A life worthy of a human being: Generic rights to freedom, participation and well-being ................................................. 86 5. The primary values underlying human rights ................................... 89 6. Freedom or autonomy? ..................................... ..... ............ 92 7. Freedom, first among equals ....................................... ........ 95 8. Well-being ......................................... 98 9. Participation .......................... .................... ......... 100 10. Individuality ....................................... ...................................... . 102 11. Equality ........................................... ........... .............................. 107 12. Neutrality .................... . .................... 111 13. Concluding comments ..................................... .............. 113 Bibliography .......................................... 113 CHAPTER 4: POVERTY: IS ANYONE TO BLAME? 1. Introduction ........................ ... .. .. .............................................. 118 2. Skeptics on social justice ..................................... 119 3. Libertarian skepticism ........................................ 122 4. Poverty is human-made ........................................ 130 5. A duty to refrain and a duty to protect ..................................... 134 6. A duty to help ....................................................... 136 7. Who is the duty-bearer? ........................................ 138 Bibliography ........................................ 140 CHAPTER 5: THE ILLUSIONS OF LIBERTARIANISM 1. Introduction ....................................... 144 2. The illusion of the legitimacy of the current distribution .................... 146 3. Negative and positive freedom ................................. ....... 149 4. Poverty is a violation of negative freedom ..................................... 152 Bibliography ....................................................... ....................... 153 CHAPTER 6: THE SURPLUS VALUE OFA RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH 1. Introduction ........................................... 156 2. Interests ........................................ 160 3. Normative guideline or duty? ........................................ 161 4. Duties, disabilities, liabilities, no-rights .................... .................... 164 5. Rights as immunities and ESC-rights ........................................ 166 6. Rights m eaning powers .................................................................. 170 7. Rights/liberties ........................................ 173 8. Claim-rights .............................. ........... 178 Bibliography ........................................ 179 CHAPTER 7: THE VAGUENESS OF ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS 1. Introduction ........................................ 183 2. The dynamics of hum an rights ........................................................ 186 3. Obligations flowing from ESC-rights ............................................. 188 4. W hat do various authors say? ....................................................... 191 5. Some more categories ..................................................................... 193 6. The result of the search: a scheme of obligations ............................ 196 7. Justiciable duties? ........................................................................... 203 Bibliography ......................................................................................... 205 CHAPTER 8: A RIGHT IS A PRECIOUS THING 1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 210 2. Duty + interest = right: a m inimalist view ......................................... 213 3. Intentiohality ................................................................................... 216 4. Personhood .................................................................................. 219 5. Discretion ..................................................................................... 221 6. Discretion and hum an rights ......................................................... 222 7. Societal recognition of rights............................................................ 225 8. Effective societal support: justiciability, enforceability, social control ................................................................................... 228 9. Elements of a right: the notion of a right versus a concrete right ...... 230 10. Justiciability again .......................................................................... 233 11. Aspects and elements ................................................................ 235 12. Genuine, justiciable rights............................................................. 236 Bibliography ...................................................................................... 238 CHAPTER 9: GLOBAL NORMS FOR A GLOBAL VILLAGE 1. Introduction ................................................................................... 242 2. Historical relativity vs. historical universality..................................... 244 3. Contem porary relativity or universality .............................................. 246 4. Normative relativity or universality .................................................... 249 5. Unacceptability and inconsistency of cultural relativism .................. 253 6. Normative universalism and justificatory universalism ...................... 255 7. A dialogue ........................................................................................ 257 Bibliography ...................................................................................... 260 CHAPTER 10: IN DEFENSE OF UNIVERSALISM: WORLD CITIZENSHIP 1. Cultural relativism vs. universalism .................................................. 263 2. The universality of the right-holder .................................................... 264 3. The universality of the object of the right .......................................... 267 4. The universality of the addressees of human rights.......................... 268 5. Global citizenship ........................... .............................................. 271 Bibliography ...................................................................................... 274 Endnotes .............................................. ........................................... 275