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Chapter 1 History of Wine 11 1.1 The Prehistory of Wine 11 1.2 Dissemination of Viticulture 15 1.3 The Earliest Chemical Evidence for Ancient Wine 16 1 4 The Holy Land 21 L5 Egypt 23 1.6 Greece 27 1.7 Romans 33 117.1 Resinated Wine 42 1.8 Post-Roman Europe 43 1.9 The New World 50 References 62 Chapter 2 "The Vine 65 2.1 The Origin, Taxonomy and Biogeography of the Grapevine 65 2. i.1I Prehistoric Evidence for Vitis 71 2, .1 Differences between Muscadine Grapes and Euvitis spp. 74 2.2 The Grape and Maturation Processes 78 22.21 Berry Structure 79 2.2.2 Developmental Stages of the Grape 85 2,243 Flavour and Aroma Compounds in the Mature Grape 92 21.4 Grape-Derived Phenolic Substances 101 Refere nces 12 Chapwer 3 The Yeast and Fermentation 114 3.1 The Yeast 114 3J1 Taxonomy 5 3.1ý2 Cell Structure 117 3.2 Fermentatin 132 33 Yeast Starter Cultures 156 .3.1 Bourgovin 157 3'32 EC- 11L8 157 References 1 58 Chapter 4 Winemaking Processes 161 4.1 Red Wine Production 161 4. 11 Time of Harvest 162 4. . Crushing 166 414. A Fermentation 167 4.2 White Wine Production 170 4., 1 White Wine Styles 17 4.22 2 Harvesting 772 4 2.3 Crushing 173 "173 4.2.4 Pressing 17i 4.2.5 Settling Clarification 174 4.26 Fermentation 174 4,3 Sparkling Wine 174 4.3.1 The Champagne Method 176 4..2 The Tank Method 182 43.3. The Transfer Method 184 4.314 Carbonation 185 44 C(old Maceration 187 a 5 Ca rbonic Maceration 187 4.6 Thermoviinfication 191 4.7 Chaptalisation 192 4.8 Use of Commerctil Enzymes in Winemaking 193 References 201 Chapter 5 Lactic Acid Bacteria and Malo-Lactic Fermentation 203 5.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria 203 5.2 Malo-Lactic Fermentation 223 5,2.1 Urethane (Ethyl Carbamate), and Arginine Metabolism 231 5.2.2 Bacteriophages 237 R.eferences 238 ( hapter 6 Clarification, Stabilisation and Preservation 242 6.1 Clarification 242 6.1.1 Proteins 246 6.1 .2 Polyvinyl Polypyrrolidone 253 6.1.3 Bentonite 255 6.2 Tartaric Acid, Tartrates and Wine Stability 258 6.11 Static Cold Stabilisation /264 6.2.2 Contact Cold Stabilisation 264 6 123 on-.Exchange Stabilisation 266 6.2.4 Estimation of Cold Stability 267 6.25 Prevention of Crystallisation 269 6.2.6 Protein Instablity 271 6.2.7 Assessment of Heat (Protein) Stability 273 6.3 Preservation 274 6.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide 274 6.3.2 Dimethyldicarbonate 286 6.33 Sorbic Acid 287 6 3.4 Benzoic Acid 289 References 290 Chapter 7 Maturation and Ageing 293 7.1 Sur Lie Storage of Wine 296 /.2 Oak and Wine 298 7.3 Maturalion Reactions in Red Wine 302. 74 Micro-Oxygenation (MOx) 303 7.5 Corks 306 References 307 Chapter 8 Fortified Wines 309 8.1 Fortification 312 8.2 Port 313 8.3 Vins Doux Naturels (VDN) 328 8.4 Madeira 329 8.5 Sherry 332 8.6 Coramandaria 346 References 348 Chapter 9 Other Organisms Important in Oenology 351 9.1 Killer Yeasts 351 9.2 Brettanomyces 362 9.3 Botrytis cinerea 367 References 382 Chapter 10 Pests and Diseases 386 10.1 Phylloxera 386 10.2 Fungal Diseases of the Grapevine 399 10. 2, Downy Mildew 399 1012.2 Powdery Mildew 401 0.2.3 Black Rot 403 10.14 Dead-Arm 405 10.2.5 Anthracnose 411 10.3 Bacterial Diseases of the Grapevine 413 10.31 Pierce's Disease 413 .10.32 Crown Gall 415 104 Viruses 431 10 4 1 Fanleaf Degeneration 432 0 4 2 Grapevine Leafroll 433 References 434 Appendix A Table of Wine Composition 437 Appendix B Density Scaes 441