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1. INTRODUCTION 1 1. The Concept of Crime 2 2. The Function of the Criminal Law 5 3. Classifying Conduct as Criminal 8 4. The Human Rights Act 1998 16 The Convention Rights 16 2. ACTUS REUS 25 1. Elements of Crime 25 2. Voluntariness 27 3. Omissions 31 i. Breach of Duty to Act 33 ii. Commission by Omission 34 4. Causation 49 i. Sine Qua Non 50 ii. Imputability 52 iii. An Alternative Approach 70 5. Coincidence of Actus Reus and Mens Rea 71 3. MENS REA 79 1. The requirement of Mens Rea 79 2. The Meaning of Mens Rea 86 i. Intention 88 ii. Motive and Intention 109 iii. Knowledge 114 iv. Recklessness 118 v. Wilfulness 135 vi. Proposals for Reform 142 3. Mistake 145 i. Relevant Mistakes 145 ii. Irrelevant Mistakes 163 4. Strict Liability 177 i. The Evolution of Strict Liability 177 ii. Identifying Offences of Strict Liability 178 iii. Critique 201 iv. Proposals for Reform 204 4. MENTAL INCAPACITY 208 1. Insanity 208 i. Disease of the Mind 215 ii. Defect of Reason 221 iii. Uncontrollable Impulse 224 2. Automatism 225 3. Proposals for Reform 236 4. Intoxication 241 i. Specific and Basic Intent 242 ii. Involuntary Intoxication 251 iii. Becoming Intoxicated with Intent-the "Dutch Courage" Problem 256 iv. Intoxication and Defences 258 v. Proposals for Reform 263 5. DEFENCES 271 1. Defences in General 271 2. Duress 272 i. An Imminent Threat of Death or Serious Injury 273 ii. The Test for Duress 276 iii. Characteristics Attributable to the Person of Reasonable Firmness 278 iv. Voluntary Association with Criminal Organisation 283 v. Duress and Murder 290 vi. Proposals for Reform 303 3. Necessity 311 i. A Defence of Necessity 311 ii. Duress of Circumstances 316 iii. Necessity, Duress of Circumstances and Homicide 318 iv. Necessity by Circumstance 325 v. Proposals for Reform 336 4. Self-Defence and Kindred Defences 336 i. Scope of the Defences 337 ii. The Issues of Imminence and the Pre-emptive Strike 345 iii. Is there a Duty to Retreat? 348 iv. Unknown Circumstances of Justification 350 v. To Which Offences do the Defences Apply? 350 vi. Reasonable Force 351 vii. Fatal Force and the European Convention on Human Rights 359 viii. Proposals for Reform 361 6. DEGREES OF RESPONSIBILITY 364 1. Accomplices 364 i. Principals and Secondary Parties 364 ii. Aiding, Abetting, Counselling or Procuring 366 iii. Proving the Principal Offence 370 iv. Mens Rea of a Secondary Party 376 v. Secondary Party Not Convictable as a Principal 401 vi. Proposals for Reform 406 2. Vicarious Liability 408 3. Corporations 416 7. INCHOATE OFFENCES 438 1. Attempts 438 i. Mental Element 440 ii. Actus Reus 450 2. Conspiracy 463 i. Statutory Conspiracies 463 ii. Common Law Conspiracies 474 iii. Jurisdiction 479 3. Incitement 482 4. Impossibility in Relation to Inchoate Offences 488 i. Attempt 488 ii. Conspiracy 498 iii. Incitement 499 8. HOMICIDE 503 1. The Actus Reus of Homicide 503 2. Murder 505 i. The Penalty for Murder 505 ii. The Mental Element in Murder 505 iii. Proposals for Reform 513 3. Special Defences 524 i. Provocation 524 ii. Diminished Responsibility 555 4. Involuntary Manslaughter 574 i. Unlawful Act Manslaughter 580 ii. Gross Negligence Manslaughter 589 iii. Reform of the Law of Involuntary Manslaughter 597 5. Other Unlawful Homicides 604 i. Infanticide 604 ii. Child Destruction 604 iii. Abortion 605 iv. Suicide 610 v. Causing Death by Driving 612 9. NON-FATAL OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON 614 1. Assault and Battery 614 i. Actus Reus 615 ii. Mens Rea 619 iii. Justifications 619 2. Assault Occasioning Actual Bodily Harm 652 3. Malicious Wounding and Wounding with Intent 654 i. Malicious Wounding 654 ii. Wounding with Intent 662 iii. Proposals for Reform 664 4. Sexual Offences 669 i. Rape 669 ii. Assault by Penetration 679 iii. Sexual Assault 680 iv. Causing a Person to Engage in Sexal Activity Without Consent 683 v. Sexual Offences Against Children Under 13 684 vi. Sexual Offences Against Children Aged 13-16 685 vii. Other Offences 685 10, THEFT AND ROBBERY 687 1. Theft 687 i. Appropriation 688 ii. "Property" 713 iii. "Belonging to Another" 724 iv. "With the Intention of Depriving Permanently" 743 v. "Temporary Deprivation" 750 vi. "Dishonestly" 755 2. Robbery 764 11, FRAUD 769 1. Obtaining Property by Deception 770 i. Obtaining Property Belonging to Another with Intention Permanently to Deprive 770 ii. Deception 777 iii. The Obtaining must be by the Deception 784 iv. Dishonesty 794 2. Obtaining Pecuniary Advantage by Deception 795 3. Obtaining Services by Deception 796 4. Evasion of Liability by Deception 798 5. Making Off Without Payment 802 6. Fraud Bill 2005 806 12. BLACKMAIL 810 i. Demand with Menaces 810 ii. Unwarranted 814 iii. With a View to Gain, etc. 819 13. HANDLING 826 i. Stolen Goods 826 ii. Otherwise than in the Course of Stealing 832 iii. Forms of Handling 834 iv. Knowing or Believing them to be Stolen Goods 840 v. Dishonesty 844 vi. Dishonestly Retaining a Wrongful Credit 845 14. BURGLARY AND KINDRED OFFENCES 849 1. Burglary 849 i. Entry 850 ii. As a Trespasser 851 iii. Buildings or Parts of Buildings 858 iv. Intent to Commit an Offence in the Building 859 v. The Ulterior Offence 864 2. Aggravated Burglary 865 3. Going Equipped 866 i. Has with Him 867 ii. When not at his Place of Abode 868 iii. Any Article 869 iv. For use in the Course of or in Connection with any Burglary, Theft or Cheat 869 15. CRIMINAL DAMAGE 872 1. Destroying or Damaging Property 872 A. The Simple Offence 876 i. Belonging to Another 876 ii. Without Lawful Excuse 876 iii. Intending to Destroy or Damage any such 881 Property iv. Being Reckless as to whether any such Property 883 would be Destroyed or Damaged B. The Aggravated Offence: With Danger to Life 883 2. Other Offences 886