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C: APTER I [lOW Do We Know' ? Introduction: What This Text Is About 1 A Few Quick Tips for Using This Text 2 Preamble for Chapter 1 2 A Brief History of Human. Knowledge 4 Metaphysical Systems 4 Philosophy 6 Physiology and the Physical Sciences 7 Experimental Psychology 7 The Four Canons of Science 8 Determinism 8 Empiricism 12 Parsimony 14 Testabilitv 17 Four Ways of Knowing About the World 21 Summary 24 Study Questions 24 Notes 25 CHAPTER 2 [ow Do We Find Out?9 Tha Logic, Ar, and [thio of Fletofitie Diecovery 26 The Logic of Scientific Discovery 27 Laws, Theories, and Hypotheses 27 The Science of Observation 31 Three Approaches to Hypothesis Testing 34 The Art of Scientific Discovery 44 Inductive Techniques for Developing Ideas 45 Deductive Techniques for Developing ideas 47 The Ethics of Scientific Discovery 50 The Evolution of Ethical Guidelines 50 Modern Internal Review Boards and Risk-Benefit Analyses 52 A Primer in Ethical Guidelines 54 Sumrmary 57 Study Questions 57 Notes 58 CHAPTER3 Lk" T A C-a "iv p LA a i i i Three Strange Stories 60 Validity 61 Internal Validity 61 Externai Validity 63 Construct Validity 64 Conceptual Validity 65 Reliability 68 Reliability, Validity, and the "More Is Better" Rule 72 Measurement Scales 73 Nominal Scales 74 Ordinal Scales 74 Interval Scales 74 Ratio Scales 75 The Validity of Measurement Assumptions 75 Summary 76 Study Questions 77 CHAPTER 4 M, f .. Converting Notions to Numbers: The Two Major Challenges 80 The Judgment Phase 81 Walking a Mile in Someone Else's Moccasins: Perspective Taking 81 Wording Questions Well for Everyone: Being Clear and Simple 86 The Response Translation Phase 97 The Number of Scale Points 97 The Importance of Anchors 98 Putting It All Together: The EGVWA Scale 103 Special Cases Require Special Scales 103 From Writing Questions to Creating Scales 105 Three Steps to Designing Questionnaires 106 Alternate Measures 107 Summary 112 Study Questions 113 CHAPTER 5 One Strange and Lucrative Story 116 People Are Different 117 Individual Differences and "Third Variables" 117 Selection Bias and Nonresponse Bias 118 People Change 120 History and Maturation 121 Regression Toward the Mean 122 The Process of Studying People Changes People 125 Testing Effects 126 Experimental Mortality (Attrition) 128 Participant Reaction Bias 130 Experimenter Bias 135 Moving From Three Threats to Two: Confounds and Artifacts 137 Confounds l37 Artifacts 140 Confounds Versus Artifacts 143 Summary 143 Study Questions 143 Note 144 CHAPTER 6 Describing the World of a Single Participant: Case Studies 145 Please Dortt Try This at Home: The Case of Phineas Gage 146 My Life as a Dog: The Case of Stephen D. 147 Really, Really Late Night with Peter Tripp 148 The Life and Very Hard Times of Sarah 149 The Man Who Forgot His Wife and His Hat 150 What Makes a Case Study Scientific? 152 Describing the State of the World at Large: Single-Variable Research 1.53 Population Surveys 154 Epidemiological Research 156 Research on Public Opinion 157 Limitations and Drawbacks of Population Surveys 159 Single-Variable Convenience Samples 160 Describing Associations: Multiple-Variable Research 161 Correlational Methods 161 Person Confounds 163 Environmental Confounds 163 Operational Confounds 163 A Reminder About Reverse Causality 165 Archival Research 166 Observational Research 170 Confounds Can Be Measured Too! 172 Summary 174 Study Questions 174 Notes 175 CHAPTER 7 Expfiell-ence& CI [11 Pk mi:nel A Wonderful Method 176 A Brief History of True Experiments 177 Strengths of True Experiments 182 True Experiments Eliminate Individual Differences 182 True Experiments Eliminate Other Kinds of Confounds 184 True Experiments Pull Researchers into the Laboratory 186 True Experiments Allow Researchers to Observe the Invisible 186 True Experiments Provide information About Statistical Interactions 188 "True Experiments Minimize Noise 189 A Summary of Experimentation 190 Are True Experiments Realistic? 190 The Problem: Artificiality 191 The Solution: Two Forms of Realism 192 Is There a Recipe for Experimental Realism? 197 Trade-Offs Between Internal and External Validity 198 The "How-To"s of Laboratory Studies 202 Setting the Stage 202 Rehearsing and Playing the Part 204 When the Study Is Done: Replicate as Needed 206 Summary 208 Study Questions 209 Notes 209 CHAPTER 8 Exhwui-e j . f g [x Ofit: a"s s - "·- - ** ^ *** " -- "~ - B" * * - - ^ One Very Old Story 211 Why Quasi-Experiments? 213 Kinds of Quasi-Experiments 214 Person-by-Treatment Quasi-Experiments 214 Natural Experiments 219 Nature and iTreatmnent Designs 221 Comparabilitv 224 Patched-Up Designs 225 ExaTiple 1: Evaluating a Teaching Tool 226 Exam-ple I. Would a Rose by Any Other Name Move to Rosemont? 232 When True Experiments and Quasi-Experiments Collide 235 umnmary 240 Study Questions 240 Notes 241 SFLAPTER 9 .h t rh 24 One Obscure Movie 242 One-Way Designs 243 Factorial Designs 245 ins and Outs of Factorial Designs 245 Main Effects 247 Interactions 240 Within-Subjects Designs 258 Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs 258 Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs 260 Solutions 262 ,Nixed-Model Designs 266 Summary 267 Study Questions 267 Notes 268 CHIAPT'ER 10 o; Descriptive Statistics 270 Central 'endency and Dispersion 271 The Shape of Distributions 273 Inferential Statistics 276 Probability Theory 278 A Study of Cheating 281 'hings That Go Bump in the Light: Factors That Influence the Results of Significance Tests 284 Alpha L-vels and Type I and iI Errors 284 Effect Size and Significance Testing 285 leasurement Error and Significance Testing 285 Sample Size andi Significance Testing 286 Restriction of Range and Significance Testing 286 The Changing State of the Art: Alternate Perspectives on Statistical Hypothesis Testing 287 Estimates of Effect Size 288 Meta-Analysis 290 Summary 292 Study Questions 292 Notes 293 CHAPTER 11 The Hourglass Approach to Empirical Research Papers 295 Some "Rules" to Writing Research Papers 298 Rule 1: Be Correct 298 Rule 2: Be Clear 298 Rule 3: Be Comprehensive (but Discerning) 301 Rule 4: Be Concise 302 Rule 5: Be (Somewhat) Cautious 304 Rule 6: Be Assertive 305 Rule 7: Be Predictable 306 Rule 8: Be Creative 307 Rule 9: Be Original (and Cite Your Lack of Originality) 308 Rule 10: Be Gender Neutral 309 Rule 11: Be Easy on the Eyes 309 No More Rules 311 How to Give a Good Talk in Psychology (by Daniel T. Gilbert) 311 Have a Plan 311 Tell the Plan 313 Start at the Beginning 313 Be Painfully Clear 314 "Talk About One Interesting Thing 315 Take Charge of the Interaction 316 End at the End 317 Summary 317 Study Questions 318 CHAPTER 12 i. In Search of a Delicious. Low-Fat TV Show 320 2 Let's Get Supernatural 320 3. Fly Away Home 320 4. Impressive Pickup Lines 321 5. Clever Who? 321 0. Life Sucks and 5:o Yo u Die 322 7. On the Drawbacks of Liking Yourself 322 8. The Early Bird Gets the Win? 323 9. Testosterone Makes Better Dive Bombers 323 10. Working Your Fingers to the Dean's List 324 11. To Thine Own Selves Be True 324 12. A Rosy Mood by Any Other Name? 324 13. Old Geniuses Never Die Young? 325 14. Sampling Student Opinion 325 15. im Speechless 326 16. He May Be Small but He's Slow 327 17. Everyone's a Winner 328 18. Can a Couple of Beers Really Go Straight to Your Belly? 328 19. What's in a Name? 328 20. Are You Threatening Me? 329 APPENDIX 1 Hands-On Activity 1 332 aliieo's Dice 332 Group i (the Logical Counters of Ways) 333 Group 2 (the Logical Expected Evaluators) 333 Groups 3 and/or 4 (the Empiricists) 333 What About Intuition and Authority? 334 More Detailed Instructions for Groups 1 and 2 334 Questions 336 Hands-On Activity 2 336 Regression Toward the Mean 336 Questions for Group Discussion 338 Special Notes to the Instructor 338 Hands-On Activity 3 339 A Double-Bind Taste Test with Popular Colas 339 Information for the Experimenter 339 Instructions for Participants in the Cola Taste Test 340 Questions for Students 340 Hands-On Activity 4 344 The Stroop Interference Effect 344 Advance Preparation 345 Task Instructions 345 Methodological Notes 36