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Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Safety zones in the 1990s: definition and distinctiveness 2 Historical precedents 2 Legal codification 3 Safety zones in the 1990s 6 Accounting for safety zones through a broadened conception of interest 8 Community interests and the case studies 11 Community interests as focal points 12 Community interests as enablers 13 Community interests as constraints 17 Community interests as aspects of identity 18 State interests and the case studies 19 State interests as enablers 19 State interests as constraints 20 State interests as aspects of identity 20 Community and state interests in interaction 21 The end of the cold war 21 Chapter 2 Providing Comfort at Home: Safe Haven in Iraq 24 The 1991 Gulf War and its aftermath 25 The initial phase of the Kurdish crisis 29 State interests and the initial phase of the Kurdish crisis 30 Community interests and the initial phase of the Kurdish crisis 32 The creation of a safe haven for the Kurds 34 Community interests and the creation of the safe haven 35 State interests and the creation of the safe haven 43 The implementation of the safe haven 47 State interests and the implementation of the safe haven 48 Community interests and the implementation of the safe haven 49 Conclusion 50 Chapter 3 Only So Far but No Further: Safe Areas in Bosnia 51 The war in Bosnia prior to the safe areas 53 Origins of the conflict in Bosnia 53 Nature of international involvement during 1992 56 The creation of the Srebrenica safe area 57 Community interests and the Srebrenica safe area 59 State interests and the Srebrenica safe area 64 The extension of the safe are concept and strategy for implementation 67 State interests and the extension of the safe area concept 70 Community interests and the extension of the safe area concept 73 The safe area crises, August 1993-July 1995 75 The safe area crises 76 Community interests and the safe area crises 81 State interests and the safe area crises 86 Safe area endgame 88 Community interests and the safe area endgame 89 State interests and the safe area endgame 91 Conclusion 94 Chapter 4 A Decision Not to Act: Proposed UN Secure Humanitarian Areas in Rwanda 96 Rwanda prior to the genocide 97 Origins of the Rwandan genocide 97 UN involvement in Rwanda prior to and during the genocide 101 International inaction following the start of the genocide 104 State interests and international inaction 105 Community interests and international inaction 107 The adoption and non-implementation of secure humanitarian areas (SHAs) 117 Community interests and the adoption and non-implementation of SHAs 118 State interests and the adoption and non-implementation of the SHAs 119 Conclusion 121 Chapter 5 Too Little, Too Late: France's Zone Humanitaire Sure in Rwanda 123 France and Rwanda, 1990-1994 126 France's initial indifference to genocide 129 State interests and France's initial indifference 130 Community interests and France's initial indifference 134 France's change of course and the launch of Operation Turquoise 135 State interests and the launch of Operation Turquoise 136 Community interests and the launch of Operation Turquoise 137 The implementation and effectiveness of the ZHS 141 State interests and the implementation of the ZHS 143 Community interests and the implementation of the ZHS 146 Conclusion 147 Chapter 6 Conclusion 149 State and community interests and the creation and implementation of safety zones in the 1990s 150 Overall assessment of the safety zones of the 1990s 154 Beyond the 1990s 161 Notes 163 Bibliography 204 Interviews 204 Conducted by author 204 Conducted by 'Death of Yugoslavia', BBC documentary 205 Conducted by 'The Triumph of Evil', Frontline PBS documentary www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/ shows/evil/. 206 Inquiries and special reports 206 Bosnia 206 Rwanda 206 Secondary sources 207