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Part I. Background of the Field Chapter 1. Introduction: The Environment at Risk 3 Introduction 3 Significance of the Environment for Human Health 5 Population and the Environment 7 Definitions Used in the Environmental Health Field 14 Historical Background 16 Careers in the Environmental Health Field 20 Conclusion and Overview of the Text 22 Study Questions and Exercises 23 Chapter 2. Environmental Epidemiology 25 Introduction 25 Definition of Environmental Epidemiology 26 Contributions of Epidemiology to Environmental Health 27 Brief History of Environmental Epidemiology 29 Strategies of Environmental Epidemiology 31 Causality in Epidemiologic Studies 36 Bias in Environmental Epidemiologic Studies 38 Limitations and Deficiencies of Environmental Epidemiology 39 Conclusion 40 Study Questions and Exercises 42 Chapter 3. Environmental Toxicology 45 Introduction 45 Description of Toxicology 46 Terminology Used in the Field of Toxicology 47 The Concept of a Dose and Related Terms 48 Factors That Affect Responses to a Toxic Chemical 51 Links between Toxicology and Risk Assessment 54 Conclusion 59 Study Questions and Exercises 60 Chapter 4. Environmental Policy and Regulation 63 Introduction 63 Overview of the Environmental Policy Process 64 Risk Assessment and Policy Development 68 Case Studies: Environmental Policies to Protect Human Health 70 Agencies Involved in the Adoption, Implementation, and Enforcement of Environmental Policies 74 Major U.S. Environmental Health Laws 77 Conclusion 81 Study Questions and Exercises 82 Part II. Agents of Environmental Disease Chapter 5. Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Diseases 87 Introduction 87 Terminology Used in the Context of Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Diseases 87 Examples of Vector-Borne Diseases 88 Arthropod-Borne Viral Diseases (Arboviral Diseases) 100 Emerging Zoonoses 101 Other Zoonotic Diseases 110 Control and Prevention of Mosquito-Borne Diseases 114 Conclusion 116 Study Questions and Exercises 117 Chapter 6. Toxic Metals and Elements 119 Introduction 119 The Top 20 Hazardous Substances 119 Overview of Sources and Effects of Exposure to Metals 120 Toxic Heavy Metals 124 Essential Metals with Potential for Toxicity 134 Metals for Use in Medical Therapy 136 Conclusion 136 Study Questions and Exercises 137 Chapter 7. Pesticides and Other Organic Chemicals 141 Introduction 141 Chemicals in the ATSDR List of Top 20 Hazardous Substances 143 Pesticides 145 Dioxins 154 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 155 Organic Solvents 157 Chemicals Used in the Manufacture of Plastics 159 Cleaning and Household Products 159 Environmental Estrogens 159 Conclusion 161 Study Questions and Exercises 162 Chapter 8. Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation 165 Introduction 165 Overview of Ionizing Radiation 166 Types of Ionizing Radiation 166 Measurement of Ionizing Radiation Dose Units 167 Health Effects of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation 168 Sources of Environmental Exposure to Ionizing Radiation 171 Medical Uses of Ionizing Radiation 178 Nuclear Waste Disposal 179 Nonionizing Radiation 179 Sources of Exposure to Nonionizing Radiation 180 Conclusion 188 Study Questions and Exercises 189 Part III. Applications of Environmental Health Chapter 9. Water Quality 195 Introduction 195 The Water Supply 197 Treatment of Water for Residential Consumption 204 Drinking Water Contamination 208 Beach and Coastal Pollution 219 Conclusion 225 Study Questions and Exercises 226 Chapter 10. Air Quality 229 Introduction 229 Notorious Air Pollution Episodes in History 231 Sources and Causes of Air Pollution 232 Components of Air Pollution 237 Air Quality Standards 243 Health Effects of Air Pollution 244 Indoor Air Quality 249 Global Climate Change and Global Warming 253 Controlling Air Pollution and Global Warming 259 Conclusion 259 Study Questions and Exercises 261 Chapter 11. Food Safety 265 Introduction 265 The Global Burden of Foodborne Illness 266 Categories of Food Hazards 267 Common Microbial Agents of Foodborne Illness 267 Bacterial Agents 268 Worms 279 Viral Agents 281 Other Agents 283 Chemically Related Foodborne Hazards 285 Regulation of Food Safety 291 Foodborne Disease Prevention 294 Conclusion 299 Study Questions and Exercises 300 Chapter 12. Solid and Liquid Wastes 303 Introduction 303 Historical Background-Solid Waste Disposal 303 Components of the Municipal Solid Waste Stream 305 Solid Waste Management 305 Disposal of Hazardous Materials and Wastes 311 Sewage Processing and Disposal 314 Animal Wastes 319 Conclusion 321 Study Questions and Exercises 322 Chapter 13. Occupational Health 325 Introduction 325 Background and History 325 Significance of the Occupational Environment for Health 329 Overview of Agents of Occupational Disease 331 Specific Occupationally Associated Diseases and Conditions 334 Prevention of Occupational Disease 348 Conclusion 350 Study Questions and Exercises 352