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LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF TABLES xiv PREFACE xv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xvii 1. ARCHAEOLOGY, SPACE AND GIS 1 1.1 Spatial information and archaeology 3 1.2 Thinking about space 4 1.3 Neutral space and quantification 6 1.4 Meaningful spaces 8 1.5 What is a GIS? 9 1.6 An anatomy lesson 10 1.7 Where did GIS come from? 13 1.8 What does it do that makes it so attractive to archaeologists? 16 1.9 The development of GIS applications in archaeology 18 1.10 Conclusion 20 2. THE SPATIAL DATABASE 23 2.1 How does a spatial database differ from a traditional database? 23 2.2 Thematic mapping and georeferencing 25 2.3 Projection systems 28 2.4 Further complications 31 2.5 Spatial data models and data structures 32 2.6 Vector data structures 34 2.7 An example of a 'Simple' vector structure 36 2.8 Raster data layers 50 2.9 Which is best-vector or raster? 56 2.10 A note on thematic mapping 57 2.11 Conclusion 57 2.12 Further information 58 3. ACQUIRING AND INTEGRATING DATA 59 3.1 Sources of spatial data 59 3.2 Sources of attribute data 60 3.3 Clarifying the relationship between spatial and attribute 60 3.4 Integrating spatial information-map-based data 62 3.5 Integrating spatial information-co-ordinates 69 3.6 Integrating spatial information-survey data 7 71 3.7 Integrating spatial information-images 74 3.8 Integrating spatial information-existing digital resources 81 3.9 Integrating attribute data 82 3.10 Data quality 83 3.11 Metadata and interoperability 86 3.12 Conclusion 87 4. MANIPULATING SPATIAL DATA 89 4.1 This is where the fun starts 89 4.2 Searching the spatial database 90 4.3 Summaries 94 4.4 Simple transformations of a single data theme 98 4.5 Spatial data modelling 104 5. DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS 107 5.1 Uses of elevation models 107 5.2 Elevation data in maps 108 5.3 Storing elevation data in GIS 110 5.4 Creating elevation models 113 5.5 Products of elevation models 120 5.6 Visualisation 123 5.7 Summary 123 6. BEGINNING TO QUANTIFY SPATIAL PATTERNS 125 6.1 What is spatial analysis? 126 6.2 Identifying structure when we only have points 127 6.3 Spatial structure among points that have values 131 6.4 Spatial structure in area and continuous data 132 6.5 Structure in lines and networks 134 6.6 Comparing points with spatial variables: one- and two-sample tests 136 6.7 Relationships between different kinds of spatial observations 139 6.8 Exploratory Data Analysis 142 6.9 And there is more... 146 6.10 Spatial analysis? 146 7. SITES, TERRITORIES AND DISTANCE 147 7.1 Buffers, corridors and proximity surfaces 148 7.2 Voronoi tessellation and Delaunay triangulation 149 7.3 Cost and time surfaces 151 7.4 Site catchment analysis and GIS 159 7.5 Conclusion 162 8. LOCATION MODELS AND PREDICTION 165 8.1 Deductive and inductive approaches 166 8.2 Inputs and outputs 166 8.3 Rule-based approaches 169 8.4 Regression-based approaches 171 8.5 An example: predictive.modelling in action 176 8.6 Methodological issues in predictive modelling 178 8.7 The prediction predicament: theoretical differences of opinion 179 8.8 Conclusions 180 9. TREND SURFACE AND INTERPOLATION 183 9.1 Characteristics of interpolators 184 9.2 Point data 185 9.3 Trend surface analysis 187 9.4 Approaches that use triangulation 190 9.5 Approaches that use splines 192 9.6 Numerical approximation 193 9.7 Geostatistics and Kriging 195 9.8 Summary 199 10. VISIBILITY ANALYSIS AND ARCHAEOLOGY 201 10.1 The importance of visibility in archaeological analysis 201 10.2 Archaeological approaches to visibility 202 10.3 How does the GIS calculate visibility? 204 10.4 Visibility within samples of sites-the cumulative viewshed 206 10.5 Visibility of groups of sites-multiple and cumulative viewsheds 207 10.6 Problems with viewshed analysis 209 10.7 Intervisibility and reciprocity 210 10.8 How archaeologists have applied visibility analyses 212 10.9 Critiques and developments 214 11. CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 217 11.1 The importance of spatial technology for heritage management 217 11.2 Archaeological resource as continuous variation 219 11.3 Reality: the antidote to GIS 221 11.4 Seeing the wood for the trees: Dolmen database and GIS 224 11.5 Regional heritage management: Hampshire County Council 227 11.6 National and supra-national contexts 230 11.7 Conclusions: recommendations for the adoption of GIS 231 12. FUTURE DIRECTIONS 233 12.1 The current state of GIS applications within archaeology 233 12.2 The developing shape of GIS applications within archaeology 237 12.3 Technological development of GIS 238 12.4 Object-Oriented GIS (OO-GIS) 238 12.5 Multi-dimensional GIS (3D-GIS) 241 12.6 Temporal GIS (TGIS) 242 12.7 Technological convergence and field archaeology ' 243 12.8 Building a research community 245 REFERENCES 247 INDEX 265Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication: Archaeology Statistical methods, Spatial analysis (Statistics)Geographic information systems, Archaeology Methodology