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Chapter 1: The Lure of the West Chapter Preface 1. To Find a Northwest Passage by Thomas Jefferson In the wake of the Louisiana Purchase, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned an expedition to explore the territory and search for an all-water route to the Pacific. Explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark's subsequent reports of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Northwest sparked a westward movement that continued throughout the nineteenth century. 2. The Advantages of Settling the Pacific Northwest by Hall J. Kelley "Oregon fever" gripped the nation in the 1830s and 1840s, as Americans became captivated with reports of the fertile valleys of the Pacific Northwest. Thou- sands of settlers set out on the Oregon Trail in these years, many of them inspired by Hall J. Kelley, a fa- natic booster for the region. 3. Inciting Gold Fever by James K. Polk Gold was first discovered in California on January 24, 1848, but the legendary California gold rush did not truly get under way until December of that year, when President James K. Polk confirmed the rumors of mineral strikes in the West. 4. "Boosters" Promote Westward Migration by Ned E. Farrell Westward expansion was driven in large part by "boosters"-railroad companies, western mer- chants, and landowners who stood to profit from settlement of the West. Boosters often described the West as a land of almost limitless opportunity. 5. Letters to Europe Extol the Virtues of America's Frontier Part I: by Gjert Gregoriussen; Part II: by C.F. Carlsson European immigrants settled much of the American West. Often a few immigrants would lead the way, then write home to friends and relatives encouraging them to come to the New World. 6. Free Land in Oklahoma by Harper's Weekly From the 1860s on, the government took an active role in promoting settlement of the West by making western lands free to individuals willing to settle them. In one of the last of these land giveaways, thousands of homesteaders rushed to grab a plot on the 2 million acres in Oklahoma that were opened to settlement on April 22, 1889. Chapter 2: Conquest of Native America Chapter Preface 1. Indian Removal Will Benefit Both the Indians and the United States by Andrew Jackson In an 1829 message to Congress, President Andrew Jackson first proposed that the Eastern Indian tribes should move beyond the Mississippi to a newly es- tablished Indian Territory. Jackson claimed that re- moval to the West would benefit the Indians and ease tensions between Indians and whites. 2. Indian Removal Is a Dishonorable Policy by Theodore J. Frelinghuysen Senator Theodore J. Frelinghuysen was one of many leaders who felt that Indian removal was an unfair solution to mounting tensions between Indians and whites caused by westward expansion. 3. One Indian's Account of Removal West by Black Hawk The Sauk Indians of what is now Illinois were one of the many tribes that resisted removal. Prior to his death, Sauk chief Black Hawk recounted the reasons for his tribe's resistance to forced removal. 4. The Battle of Sand Creek Was a Great Victory Against the Indians by the Rocky Mountain News Clashes between Indians and whites increased dra- matically in the 1860s, as more settlers headed west than ever before. The anti-Indian sentiment in west- ern territories such as Colorado during this period is evident in the Rocky Mountain News's praise of the Battle of Sand Creek, in which over 150 Indians were killed. 5. The Sand Creek Massacre Was a Tragedy by George Bent Once the tragic details of the "Battle of Sand Creek" were made public, the incident became known as the Sand Creek Massacre instead. Eyewitnesses con- firmed that U.S. troops fired on unarmed men, women, and children as well as combatants. 6. An Eyewitness at the Battle of Little Big Horn by Two Moons American Indians' most famous military victory came at the Little Big Horn River in Montana, where General George Custer, leading a force of over approximately two hundred men, charged a gathering of Sioux and other tribes that (unbeknown to Custer) was over three thousand strong. 7. Americans React to Custer's Defeat by the New York Times News of Custer's defeat at Little Big Horn shocked the United States and led to increased anti-Indian sen- timent and renewed calls for a massive military cam- paign to wipe out the Plains tribes once and for all. 8. Indians Are an Obstacle to Progress by Elwell S. Otis Some U.S. soldiers of the North American Indian Wars viewed the Indians as an inferior race of savages. 9. Indians Want to Live in Peace with Whites by Chief Joseph In 1879 Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce Indians of Oregon, after fighting with U.S. troops, being cap- tured, and finally being forced onto a reservation in Oklahoma, made an impassioned plea for peace be- tween Indians and whites. Chapter 3: Manifest Destiny Chapter Preface 1. The United States Should Annex Texas by John L. O'Sullivan The first use of the term Manifest Destiny in print was in a Democratic Review editorial calling on the United States to annex Texas, even if it meant war with Mexico. 2. The United States Should Not Annex Texas by William E. Channing Opposition to the annexation of Texas was based on the belief that it was an act of aggression toward Mexico, as well as the concern that Texas would en- ter the Union as a slave state. 3. The American People Are Destined to Overrun the Continent by Thomas Hart Benton Manifest Destiny was based in part on a belief in white racial superiority. Some U.S. leaders in the 1840s felt that whites were destined to either dis- place or subjugate Indians, Mexicans, and blacks. 4. Manifest Destiny Is No Justification for Aggression by Charles Goodyear Not all U.S. leaders embraced westward expansion. Some felt that expanding U.S. territory at the ex- pense of other nations (denying England's claim to northern Oregon, for example) would undermine America's relations with the rest of the world. 5. The Mexican War Was Both Justified and Successful Part I: by Democratic Review; Part II: by James K. Polk During the Mexican War the Democratic Party sup- ported the Polk Administration's decision to declare war on Mexico, on the grounds that Mexico had no claim to Texas and was initiating hostilities against the United States. After the war, Polk pointed set- tlers to the vast territories-including much of the present-day Southwest-that Mexico ceded to the United States. 6. The Mexican War Was Motivated by Greed by Ramon Alcarez et al. Many Mexicans felt that the U.S.-Mexican War was only the latest incident in the United States' long his- tory of using any means necessary to spread its bor- ders across the continent. 7. The Republic Shall Encompass All of the Americas by Orestes A. Brownson The spirit of Manifest Destiny survived well past the 1840s. As late as 1865, social philosopher and clergyman Orestes A. Brownson predicted that the United States would eventually span all of North and South America. Chapter 4: The Western Railroads Chapter Preface 1. The United States Should Build a Transcontinental Railroad by William Gilpin Public support for a transcontinental railroad grew throughout the 1850s, due in part to the advocacy of western leaders such as William Gilpin, governor of the Colorado Territory. 2. The Transcontinental Railroad Is a Great Achievement by Philadelphia Bulletin In the 1860s and 1870s, many Americans viewed the transcontinental railroad as a symbol of national progress. 3. Working on the Railroad by Edward Pierce Coleman The first western railroads were built through vast frontier regions. The workers at the vanguard of the construction encountered harsh terrain and weather and interacted with settlers, outlaws, and Indians. 4. The Railroads Contribute to the Destruction of the Buffalo by William E. Webb The western railroads hastened the destruction of the vast buffalo herds that once roamed the plains, and in doing so, put an end to many Plains Indians' traditional way of life. 5. The Railroads Gave Birth to "Cow Towns" by Joseph G. McCoy The western railroads gave rise to the cattle king- doms, as cowboys in Texas drove their herds up the Chisholm Trail to "cow towns" such as Abilene, Kansas. 6. An Early Account of Western Rail Travel by Helen Hunt Jackson Early transcontinental railroad passengers were cap- tivated by the excitement and novelty of traversing the nation in a matter of days rather than weeks. 7. The Railroad Encourages Settlement of the West by George A. Batchelder The railroads made it easier for settlers to go west than ever before. In the 1870s, the eastern seaboard was flooded with propaganda urging adventurous individuals to start a new life in the West.