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Part I Introduction to Multipath Phenomena 1 1 Statistical Description of Multipath Propagation Channels 3 1.1 Nature of Multipath Phenomena 7 1.2 Mathematical Description of PDF and CDF 12 1.3 Modeling of Slow Fading 23 1.4 Modeling of Fast Fading: Clarke's Flat Model 24 References 29 2 Narrowband Fast Fading 31 2.1 Narrowband Fading: Main Definitions 31 2.2 PDF and Power Spectra in Space and Time Domains 34 2.2.1 Aulin's 3-D Model: Angle-of-Arrival PDF for E- and H-Field Components 35 2.2.2 Aulin's Model: Power Baseband Spectra Distribution 39 2.2.3 2-D Model Based on Rician Fading Statistics 42 2.3 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Signal Envelope and Phase 46 2.4 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics 49 2.4.1 LCR 51 2.4.2 AFD 53 2.5 Statistics of Signal Phase Variation 54 2.5.1 Statistical Description of Phase Difference 54 2.5.2 Random Phase Variations 56 2.6 Spatial Distribution of Power Gradients 57 References 60 3 Wideband Signal Fading 63 3.1 Wideband Signal Representation 64 3.2 Signal Fading in the Time Domain 67 3.2.1 Time Dispersion Parameters 67 3.2.2 Modeling of Time-Delay Spread 68 3.3 Wideband Signal Fading in the Frequency Domain 73 References 75 Summary of Part I 77 References 79 Part II Fading Phenomena 81 4 The Path Loss Phenomenon in Various Land Environments 83 4.1 Statistical Description of Terrain 84 4.1.1 Statistical Description of Built-up Terrain 84 4.1.2 Statistical Description of Forested Terrain 91 4.1.3 Statistical Description of Mixed Residential Areas 92 4.2 Path Loss Spatial Distributions 94 4.2.1 Signal Strength: Basic Equations 94 4.2.2 Signal Path Loss in Rural Forested Areas 95 4.2.3 Path Loss in Mixed Residential Areas with Vegetation 99 4.2.4 Path Loss in Urban Areas 104 4.3 Frequency Dependence of Path Loss in Various Areas 106 4.3.1 Frequency Dependence of Path Loss in Suburban and Urban Areas 106 4.3.2 Frequency Dependence of Path Loss in Mixed Residential Areas 109 4.3.3 Frequency Dependence of Path Loss in Rural Forested Areas 110 4.3.4 Experimental Verification of Frequency Dependence in Built-up Areas 110 4.4 Prediction of Path Loss and Radio Coverage 111 4.4.1 Path Loss in Forested Areas 112 4.4.2 Path Loss in Mixed Residential Areas 114 4.4.3 Path Loss in Urban and Suburban Areas 118 References 136 5 Distribution of Angle of Arrival and Time Delay Resulting from an Array of Buildings Placed on Rough Terrain 139 5.1 PDF Distribution in Angle and Time Domains 141 5.1.1 PDF of Arrival Angles 143 5.1.2 PDF of Arrival Time 147 5.2 Spatial Distribution of Scatterers over Terrain 149 References 152 6 Signal Power Fading in Angle and Delay Domains 157 6.1 Correlation Functions and Power Spectra of Signal Fading 158 6.2 Signal Power Spectra in Angle and Delay Domains 161 6.2.1 Angle-of-Arrival Distribution of Signal Power 163 6.2.2 Incoherent Component Distribution in Angle- of-Arrival Domain 171 6.2.3 Statistical Approach for Angle-of-Arrival Distribution 176 6.2.4 Power Spectrum Distribution in Time Domain 179 6.3 Distribution in Azimuth and Delay Domains: Comparison with Experimental Data 182 6.3.1 Conditions of Experiments 182 6.3.2 Power Azimuth and Time-Delay Spectra Distributions 183 References 188 7 Doppler Spectra Distribution in Multipath Environments 191 7.1 Spectral Properties of Signal Fading in Space Domain 192 7.2 Spectral Properties of Signal Fading in Time and Doppler Domains 198 7.3 Experimental Investigation of Power Spectrum Distribution 201 References 203 Summary of Part II 205 Part III Characterization and Consequences of Multipath Radio Channels 207 8 Prediction of Multipath Characteristics for Communications and Positioning 209 8.1 Prediction of Propagation Characteristics in Terrestrial Propagation Channels 210 8.1.1 Advantages of 3-D Stochastic Approach 210 8.1.2 Effects of Terrain Features on Loss Characteristics 213 8.1.3 Experimental Verification of Poisson Distribution for Built-up Areas 215 8.1.4 Limits of Stochastic Model Applications to Terrestrial Communications 219 8.1.5 Long-Term Fading Effects 220 8.2 Experimental Verification of Signal Distribution in Angle-of-Arrival and Time Domains 221 References 231 9 System Aspects of Multipath Phenomena 233 9.1 Link Budget for Multipath Wireless Communication Channels 233 9.1.1 Basic Path Loss Considerations 234 9.1.2 Estimation of Slow Fading 239 9.1.3 Influence of Rician Factor on Link Budget 244 9.1.4 Experimental Verification of Slow and Fast Fading 247 9.1.5 Link Budget for WCDMA 252 9.2 Prediction of Data Error Rate in Outdoor Multipath Communication Channels 253 References 261 10 Antennas in a Multipath Environment 265 10.1 Nonadaptive Antennas 265 10.2 Adaptive Antennas 268 10.2.1 Array Antennas at One End 268 10.2.2 Array Antennas at Both Ends 271 10.2.3 Spectral Efficiency of MIMO Channels 273 References 276