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1 Why Study Continental Aquatic Systems? 1 Human Utilization of Water: Pressures on a Key Resource 4 What Is the Value of Water Quality? 7 Summary 11 Questions for Thought 11 2 Properties of Water 13 Chemical and Physical Properties 13 Relationships among Water Viscosity, Inertia, and Physical Parameters 17 Movement of Water 20 Forces That Move Water 25 Light and Heating of Water 36 Summary 44 Questions for Thought 45 Hydrolog and Physiography of Groundwater and Wetland Habitats 47. Habitats and the Hydrologic Cycle 47 Movement Througha Soil and Groundwater 50 Wetlands: 56 Summary :65 Questions for Thought 66 5 Physiography of Flowing Water 69 Characterization of Streams 69 Stream Fowe and ;Ge :ology: t: Movements of Mateialsby vers and Streams 82 Summary 88 Questions for Thought 89 6 Physiography of akes and Reservoirs 91 Formation: Geological Processe :91 Lake Habitats and Morphometry :100 Stratification 103 f Water Movement and Currents in Lakes 107 Summary 110 Questions for Thought 111 7 7ypes of Aquatic Organisms 113 The Species Concept 114 Major Taxonomic Groups 116 Classification of Organisms by Functional Significance 119 Organisms Found in Freshwater Systems 122 Summary 123 Questions for Thought 123 8 Microbes and Plants 125 Viruses 126 Archaea 128 Bacteria 128 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae or Cyanophytes) 131 Protoctista 133 Eukaryotic Algae 133 Protozoa 138 Fungi 140 Aquatic Fungi 140 Aquatic Lichens 143 Plantae 144 Nonvascular plants 145 Vascular plants 148 Summary 149 Questions for Thought 150 9 Animals 153 Invertebrates 153 Phylum Porifera 153 Phylum Cnidaria 155 Phyla Platyhelminthes and Nemertea 155 Phylum Gastrotricha 157 Phylum Rotifera 157 Phylum Nematoda 158 Phylum Nematomorpha 158 Phylum Mollusca 160 Phylum Annelida 164 Phylum Bryozoa 164 Phylum Tardigrada 165 Phylum Arthropoda 165 Phylum Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata 174 Fishes 175 Tetrapods 177 Summary 178 Questions for Thought 180 10 Biodiversity of Freshwaters 183 Measures of Diversity 183 Temporal and Spatial Factors Influencing Evolution of Freshwater Organisms 186 Short-Term Factors Influencing Local Distribution of Species 191 Invasions of Nonnative Species 195 Extinction 197 What Is the Value of Freshwater Species Diversity? 200 Summary 201 Questions for Thought 201 11 Aquatic Chemistry Controlling Nutrient Cycling: Redox and 02 203 Chemicals in Freshwaters 203 Redox Potential, Potential Energy, and Chemical Transformations 207 Oxygen: Forms and Transformations 212 Photosynthesis 215 Distribution of Dissolved Oxygen in the Environment 219 Summary 226 Questions for Thought 228 12 Carbon 231 Forms of Carbon 231 Inorganic Carbon 231 Organic Carbon 233 Transformations of Carbon 235 Oxidation of Organic Carbon with Inorganic Electron Acceptors Other Than 02 236 Fermentation 237 Methanotrophy 239 Methanogenesis 240 A General Introduction to Nutrient Cycling and the Carbon Cycle 240 Summary 243 Questions for Thought 244 13 Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus, and Other Nutrients 247 Nitrogen 248 Nitrogen Forms 248 Nitrogen Fluxes 248 Nitrogen Cycle 254 Sulfur 254 Sulfur Forms 254 Sulfur Transformations 255 Sulfur Cycle 257 Phosphorus 257 Phosphorus Forms 257 Phosphorus Transformations 257 Silicon, Iron, and Other Trace Nutrient Cycles 259 Silicon 259 Iron 260 Gradients of Redox and Nutrient Cycles and Interactions among the Cycles 263 Summary 265 Questions for Thought 266 14 Effects of Toxic Chemicals and Other Pollutants on Aquatic Ecosystems 269 Basic Toxicology 271 Bioassessment 274 Acid Precipitation 274 Sources and Geography of Acid Precipitation 276 Biological Effects of Acidification 278 Metals and Other Inorganic Pollutants 284 Organic Pollutants 288 Suspended Solids 291 Thermal Pollution 291 Summary 292 Questions for Thought 293 15 Unusual or Extreme Habitats 295 Adaptations to Extremes 296 Saline Lakes 297 Hot Springs 299 Cold Habitats 302 Temporary Waters and Small Pools 304 Ultraoligotrophic Habitats 307 Deep Subsurface Habitats 308 The Water Surface Layer 309 Summary 311 Questions for Thought 311 16 Nutrient Use and Remineralization 313 Use of Nutrients 313 Nutrient Limitation and Relative Availability 319 Relative Availability of Nutrients 319 Nutrient Limitation 321 The Paradox of the Plankton and Nutrient Limitation 325 Resource Ratios and Stoichiometry of Primary Producers 326 Nutrient Remineralization 326 What Short-Term Processes Control the Levels of Dissolved Inorganic Nutrients Such as Ammonium and Phosphate? 327 Processes Leading to Remineralization 329 Remineralization as a Source of Nutrient Pulses in Lentic Systems 331 Stoichiometry of Heterotrophs, Their Food, and Nutrient Remineralization 332 Summary 334 Questions for Thought 334 17 Trophic State and Eutrophication 337 Definition of Trophic State 338 Why Is Nutrient Pollution Resulting in Algal Blooms in Lakes Important? 341 Natural and Cultural Processes of Eutrophication 342 Relationships among Nutrients, Water Clarity, and Phytoplankton: Managing Eutrophication in Lakes 344 Mitigating Lake Eutrophication 349 Control of Nutrient Sources 350 Treatment in the Lake 354 Macrophyte Removal 355 Managing Eutrophication in Streams and Wetlands 356 Case Studies of Eutrophication 358 Lake Washington 358 Lake Trummen 360 Lake Tahoe 361 Lake Okeechobee 362 The Clark Fork River 362 Eutrophication and Wetlands 363 Wetlands as Nutrient Sinks 363 Summary 364 Questions for Thought 365 18 Behavior and Interactions among Microorganisms and Invertebrates 367 Behavior of Microorganisms 368 Motility 368 Taxis 368 Interaction Types in Microbial Communities 371 Predation and Parasitism 372 Viruses 373 Consumption of Small Cells 375 Scrapers and Shredders 377 Filter Feeders 378 Selectivity of Particle Feeders 378 Microbial Adaptations to Avoid Predation 379 Parasitism 380 Other Exploitative Interactions 381 Competition 382 Mutualism: Facilitation and Syntrophy 384 Chemical Mediation of Microbial Interactions 387 Summary 388 Questions for Thought 388 19 Predation and Food Webs 391 Herbivory 392 Detritivory and Omnivory 393 Adaptation to Predation Pressure 395 Adaptations of Predators 399 Nonlethal Effects of Predation 402 Trophic Levels, Food Webs, and Food Chains 403 The Trophic Cascade 403 Theoretical Community Ecology and Aquatic Food Webs 408 Summary 409 Questions for Thought 410 20 Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions among Plants and Animals in Freshwater Communities 413 Competition 414 Mutualism and Facilitation 416 Other Species Interactions 418 Complex Community Interactions 418 Disturbance 418 Succession 420 Indirect Interactions 425 Strong Interactors 428 Summary 428 Questions for Thought 429 21 Fish Ecology and Fisheries 431 Biogeographical Determinants of Fish Assemblage Diversity 431 Physiological Aspects Influencing Growth, Survival, and Reproduction 434 Population Dynamics of Fishes 438 Regulating Exploitation of Fish Stocks 441 Stocking Fish for Fisheries 444 Aquaculture 445 Summary 446 Questions for Thought 447 22 Freshwater Ecosystems 449 General Approaches to Ecosystems 450 Groundwater Ecosystems 455 Streams 456 Lakes and Reservoirs 460 Wetlands 464 Comparison of Freshwater Ecosystems 469 Summary 470 Questions for Thought 472 23 Conclusions 475 Appendix: Experimental Design in Aquatic Ecology 479 Natural Experiments 480 Simulation Modeling 481 Manipulative Experiments 482 Summary 483