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1. Introduction ...................................................... 1 Part I: Semiconductor Physics 5 2. Semiconductors ............................................. 7 2.1 Crystal Structure ......... ..... ........................ 7 2.2 Energy Bands .............................................. 8 2.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors .................................... 11 2.4 Extrinsic Semiconductors ............... .................... 14 2.5 Carrier Transport in Semiconductors .......... ........... 16 2.5.1 Drift .......................................... ... 17 2.5.2 Diffusion ............................................ 17 2.5.3 Magnetic Field Effects ............................. 19 2.6 Carrier Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors .... 21 2.6.1 Thermal Generation of Charge Carriers ............... 21 2.6.2 Generation of Charge Carriers by Electromagnetic Radiation ........................ 22 2.6.3 Generation by Charged Particles ..................... 23 2.6.4 Shape of a Radiation-Generated Charge Cloud ........ 25 2.6.5 Multiplication Processes ........................... .. 26 2.6.6 Recombination ....................................... 28 2.6.7 Charge-Carrier Lifetime ........................... 29 2.6.8 Carrier Lifetime in Indirect Semiconductors .......... 31 2.7 Simultaneous Treatment of Carrier Generation and Transport 34 2.8 Summary and Discussion .................................... 37 3. Basic Semiconductor Structures ................................... 39 3.1 The p-n Diode Junction .................................... 39 3.1.1 A p-n Diode in Thermal Equilibrium ................. 39 3.1.2 A p-n Diode with Application of an External Voltage . 43 3.1.3 A p-n Diode Under Irradiation with Light ........... 46 3.1.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics ................. 49 3.1.5 Breakdown Under Strong Reverse Bias ............... 51 3.2 Metal-Semiconductor Contact ............................... 56 3.2.1 Current-Voltage Characteristics ...................... 58 3.2.2 Ohmic Contact ...................................... 59 3.3 Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Structure . ............ 59 3.3.1 Thermal Equilibrium Condition ...................... 61 3.3.2 The Si-SiO2 MOS Structure .......................... 68 3.3.3 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics .................. 69 3.3.4 Nonequilibrium and a Return to Equilibrium .......... 70 3.4 The n+-n or p+-p Structures ................................ 72 3.5 Summary and Discussion ........................ .......... 73 Part II: Semiconductor Detectors 77 4. Semiconductors as Detectors ...................................... 79 4.1 The Properties of Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials ......... 79 4.2 Properties of Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials ............. 83 4.2.1 Doping of Semiconductors ............................ 84 4.2.2 Bulk Defects ........................................ 86 4.2.3 Effects on Material Properties ........................ 88 4.3 Insulators and Metals ...................................... . 88 4.3.1 Insulator Properties .................................. 89 4.3.2 Semiconductor Surface Defects ....................... 89 4.3.3 Metal Properties ..................................... 90 4.4 Choice of Detector Material ................................. 91 4.4.1 Interaction of Radiation with Semiconductors ......... 91 4.4.2 Charge Collection and Measurement Precision......... 92 5. Detectors for Energy and Radiation-Level Measurement ....... 95 5.1 Unbiased Diode ............................................. 95 5.2 Reverse-Biased Diode ....................................... 100 5.2.1 Charge Collection and Measurement .................. 102 5.2.2 Surface Barrier Detectors ............................. 105 5.2.3 p-n Junction Detectors ............................... 106 5.3 Summary ............................................... . 107 6. Detectors for Position and Energy Measurement .. . .............. 109 6.1 Resistive Charge Division .................................. 109 6.2 Diode Strip Detectors ....................................... 110 6.2.1 Readout Methods ................................. 112 6.2.2 Charge Collection and Measurement Accuracy ........ 114 6.2.3 Choice of Geometrical Parameters . ............... 115 6.3 Strip Detectors with Double-Sided Readout .................. 116 6.4 Strip Detectors with Integrated Capacitive Readout Coupling ................ 120 6.5 Drift Detectors ............. .......................... 125 6.5.1 Linear Drift Devices ................................. 127 6.5.2 Matrix Drift Devices .......... ...................... . 132 6.5.3 Radial Drift Devices ................................. 133 6.5.4 Single-Sided Structured Devices ...................... 134 6.5.5 Readout of Drift Devices and Measurement Precision.. 136 6.6 Charge Coupled Devices as Detectors ....................... 137 6.6.1 Three-Phase "Conventional" MOS CCDs ............. 138 6.6.2 Linear and Matrix CCDs ............................. 140 6.6.3 Charge Collection and Charge Transport .... .......... 140 6.6.4 Signal Readout ...................................... 143 6.6.5 Other Types of MOS CCDs ............. ................. 144 6.6.6 Fully Depleted p-n CCDs ............................ 144 6.7 Summary ................................................... 151 7. The Electronics of the Readout Function ........................... 153 7.1 Operating Principles of Transistors .......................... 153 7.1.1 Bipolar Transistors ................................... 153 7.1.2 Junction Field Effect Transistors ..................... 160 7.1.3 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors . 165 7.1.4 Threshold Behavior of Unipolar Transistors ........... 175 7.1.5 The Different Types of JFETs and MOSFETs ....... 178 7.2 Noise Sources .......................................... 180 7.2.1 Thermal Noise ...................................... 180 7.2.2 Low-Frequency Voltage Noise ...................... 181 7.2.3 Shot Noise ........................................ 181 7.2.4 Noise in Transistors .................................. 182 7.3 The Measurement of Charge ........................... 190 7.3.1 The Charge-Sensitive Amplifier ............... 190 7.3.2 Noise in a Charge-Sensitive Amplifier ................. 191 7.3.3 Filtering and Shaping ............................. 192 7.4 Basic Electronic Circuits ................................... 195 7.4.1 Current Sources and Mirrors ................ 196 7.4.2 Inverters ........................................... 197 7.4.3 Source Followers .................................... 200 7.4.4 Cascode Amplifiers .................................. 201 7.4.5 Differential Amplifiers ..............................202 7.5 Integrated Circuit Technologies ............. .............202 7.5.1 NMOS Technologies .................................. 203 7.5.2 CMOS Technologies ................................ 205 7.5.3 Bipolar Technologies .......................... 206 7.5.4 SOI Technologies ................................. 206 7.5.5 Mixed Technologies ................ ............. 207 7.6 Integrated Circuits for Strip Detectors ...................... 207 7.7 Integrated Circuits for Pixel Detectors ................. .... 210 7.8 Noise in Strip Detectors - Front-End Systems . ............. .. 211 7.8.1 Biasing Circuits ...................................... 212 7.8.2 Noise in Biasing Circuits ............................. 216 7.8.3 Noise Correlations .. ...... ....................222 7.9 Summary ..................................................225 8. The Integration of Detectors and Their Electronics ................. 229 8.1 Hybrid Systems of Detectors and Their Electronics .......... 229 8.1.1 Strip Detectors ...................................... 229 8.1.2 Pixel Detectors ...................................... 231 8.2 Detector-Technology-Compatible Electronics . ............ 233 9. Detectors with Intrinsic Amplification .................. .......... 239 9.1 Avalanche Diode ............................................ 239 9.2 Depleted Field Effect Transistor Structure ................... 243 9.2.1 Depleted p-Channel MOS Field Effect Transistor (DEPMOSFET) ........ 244 9.2.2 Electrical Properties and Device Schematics ........... 247 9.2.3 Other Types of DEPFET Structures ................. 251 9.2.4 DEPFET Properties and Applications ............... 253 9.3 DEPFET Pixel Detectors .... ................................ . 254 9.3.1 DEPFET Pixel Detector with Random Access Readout 254 9.3.2 DEPFET Pixel Detector for Continuous Operation .... 255 9.3.3 Hybrid DEPFET Pixel Detector .............. 257 9.3.4 DEPFET Pixel Detector with Three-Dimensional Analog Memory .............. 258 10. Detector Technology .............................................. 259 10.1 Production of Detector Substrates ........................... 259 10.2 Processing Sequence in Planar Technology ............ 260 10.2.1 Photolithographic Structuring .. ................ 261 10.2.2 Chemical Etching .............................. 261 10.2.3 Doping ...................................... ... .. 262 10.2.4 Oxidation ...................... ..............263 10.2.5 Deposition from the Gas Phase ................. 263 10.2.6 Metal Deposition .................................... 264 10.2.7 Thermal Treatments .................................264 10.2.8 Passivation .......:................................ 265 10.3 Technology Simulation .....................................266 11. Device Stability and Radiation Hardness .......................... 267 11.1 Electrical Breakdown and Protection ..... ............. 267 11.1.1 Breakdown Protection in Diode Strip Detectors ...... 268 11.1.2 Breakdown Protection of the Detector Rim .......... 273 11.2 Radiation Damage in Semiconductors ....................... 275 11.2.1 The Formation of Primary Lattice Defects ............ 276 11.2.2 Formation and Properties of Stable Defects ........... 277 11.2.3 Electrical Properties of Defect Complexes ............. 279 11.2.4 Effects of Defects on Detector Properties .......... 288 11.2.5 Annealing of Radiation Damage ...................... 296 11.2.6 Reverse Annealing ...................................300 11.2.7 Parameterization of Radiation Damage for Low-Flux Irradiation .... ............................. 301 11.3 Radiation Damage in the Surface Region . .............. 301 11.3.1 Oxide Damage ....................................... 302 11.3.2 Nonuniformity in Bulk Damage Near the Surface ...... 303 11.4 Radiation Damage in Detectors ... . ......................... 303 11.5 Radiation Damage in Electronics ........................... 307 11.6 Radiation Hardening Techniques ........................... 309 11.7 Summary .................................................310 12. Device Simulation ................................................ 313 12.1 Mathematical Formulation ................................. 313 12.1.1 Poisson and Continuity Equations .............. 314 12.1.2 Deep-Level Defects in Stationary Situations .......... 315 12.1.3 Quasi-Fermi Levels ................................... 317 12.2 Numerical Solution of Stationary Situations .. . . ...... 319 12.2.1 Linearization of the Problem ............... 320 12.2.2 The Finite Difference Method ........................ 322 12.2.3 Example of a Stationary Problem ..................... 327 12.3 Simulation of Time-Dependent Situations ............. 330 Part III: Reference Material 333 Appendix A: Frequently Used Symbols ... . . ............................... 335 Appendix B: Physical Constants ....................................... 339 References .. ........................................................... 341 Books and Reviews ............................................... 341 Articles ....... . ........................................... 342 Index ................................................................. 349