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Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1 1.1 Thermal and Flow Measurements...................................................................1 1.2 Some Examples of Thermal and Flow Measurements....................................2 1.3 Characteristics of Measurement Systems........................................................9 1.4 Time Response of Measurement Systems...................................................... 12 1.5 Time-Series Analysis and Signal Processing................................................ 18 1.6 Error Estimates and Uncertainty Analysis....................................................24 1.6.1 Error Estimates Using Gaussian Distribution.....................................27 1.6.2 Data Regression..................................................................................30 1.6.3 Uncertainty Analysis.......................................................................... 32 1.7 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude...........................................................36 1.8 Basic Science and Engineering in Thermal and Flow Measurements................................................................................ 41 References................................................................................................................. 42 Chapter 2 Basic Measurements of Pressure, Temperature, and Flow Rates.................................................................................... 43 2.1 Pressure Measurements.................................................................................. 43 2.1.1 Manometers........................................................................................44 2.1.2 Pressure Transducers Based on Elastic Strain....................................46 2.1.3 Piezoelectric Transducers...................................................................49 2.1.4 Some Implementation Issues..............................................................50 2.2 Temperature Sensors...................................................................................... 52 2.2.1 Temperature Measurements Based on Thermal Expansion of Materials......................................................................................... 53 2.2.2 Thermocouples................................................................................... 55 2.2.3 Resistance-Based Temperature Sensors.............................................60 2.2.4 Pyrometer Measurements of Temperature..........................................64 2.3 Strain Gauges.................................................................................................68 2.4 Flow Rate Measurements............................................................................... 71 2.4.1 Obstruction Flowmeters...................................................................... 71 2.4.2 Rotameters.......................................................................................... 74 2.4.3 Turbine Flowmeters............................................................................ 75 2.4.4 Thermal Mass Flowmeters................................................................. 76 2.4.5 Flow Velocity Measurements Using Pitot and Static Pressure Probes..................................................................77 References................................................................................................................. 78 7970_C000.indd 7 11/30/07 5:44:19 PM Chapter 3 Flow Visualization and Image Analysis.............................................79 3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................79 3.2 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines........................................................80 3.3 Direct Photography Using Flow Tracers........................................................85 3.4 Surface Imaging Using Thermochromatic Liquid Crystals and Pressure-Sensitive Coatings....................................................................87 3.5 Shadowgraph and Schlieren Imaging............................................................88 3.6 Interferometry................................................................................................96 3.7 Laser Tomographic Imaging........................................................................ 101 3.8 Image Processing and Analysis................................................................... 105 3.8.1 Image Acquisition............................................................................. 105 3.8.2 Basic Image Operations.................................................................... 107 3.8.3 Image Enhancements........................................................................ 108 3.8.4 Edge Detection.................................................................................. 110 References............................................................................................................... 113 Chapter 4 Flow Velocity Measurements............................................................ 115 4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 115 4.2 Laser Doppler Velocimetry.......................................................................... 116 4.2.1 The Operating Principle................................................................... 116 4.2.2 Operational Setup............................................................................. 123 4.2.3 Particle Seeding................................................................................ 131 4.3 Hot Wire Anemometry................................................................................ 134 4.3.1 Operating Principle........................................................................... 135 4.3.2 Operational Considerations.............................................................. 138 4.4 Particle Image Velocimetry......................................................................... 143 4.4.1 Particle Image Density...................................................................... 146 4.4.2 Stereoscopic PIV for Three-Component Velocity Measurements................................................................................... 147 4.5 Other Image-Based Methods....................................................................... 149 References............................................................................................................... 152 Chapter 5 Optical Diagnostics for Measurements of Species Concentrations and Temperature...................................................... 153 5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 153 5.2 Rayleigh Scattering...................................................................................... 154 5.2.1 Rayleigh Scattering Theory.............................................................. 154 5.2.2 Applications of Rayleigh Scattering................................................. 159 5.3 Mie Scattering.............................................................................................. 162 5.3.1 Applications and Assessments.......................................................... 167 5.4 Raman Scattering......................................................................................... 169 5.5 Molecular Energy and Spectroscopy........................................................... 174 5.5 Laser-Induced Fluorescence........................................................................ 179 7970_C000.indd 8 11/30/07 5:44:20 PM 5.7 Thermometry Based on LIF........................................................................ 185 5.8 Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy.................................................... 186 5.9 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy................................................... 188 References............................................................................................................... 195 Chapter 6 Particle Sizing and Two-Phase Flow Measurements.......................................................................... 197 6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 197 6.2 Parameters to Characterize Groups of Particles.......................................... 198 6.3 Light Scattering and Extinction Measurements of Particle Size.................202 6.4 Laser-induced Incandescence Measurements of Particle Volume Fraction and Size..........................................................................................203 6.5 Laser Diffraction..........................................................................................206 6.6 Phase Doppler Analysis...............................................................................207 6.7 Particle Mass Flux Measurements............................................................... 212 6.7.1 Fiberoptic Correlation Method......................................................... 213 6.7.2 Acoustic Measurements.................................................................... 214 6.7.3 Capacitance Probes........................................................................... 216 6.8 Isokinetic Sampling..................................................................................... 217 References............................................................................................................... 219 Cahtper 7 Gas Sampling Measurements............................................................ 221 7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 221 7.2 Sampling Probes.......................................................................................... 221 7.3 Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) Analyzers...............................................225 7.4 Measurements of Nitric Oxides...................................................................227 7.5 Hydrocarbon Analysis..................................................................................230 7.6 Measurements of Sulfur Oxides.................................................................. 231 7.7 Gas Chromatography................................................................................... 232 7.8 Mass Spectroscopy.......................................................................................243 References...............................................................................................................246 Chapter 8 Scaled Measurements........................................................................247 8.1 Introduction..................................................................................................247 8.2 MEMS Devices............................................................................................247 8.2.1 Microfabrication Methods................................................................248 8.2.2 Microfluidic Sensors and Devices.................................................... 252 8.2.3 Pressure and Temperature Sensors................................................... 255 8.2.4 Bio- and Chemical Sensors............................................................... 257 8.3 Nanotechnology Sensors.............................................................................. 261 8.4 Microscopic Imaging Techniques................................................................263 8.5 LIDARS.......................................................................................................269 References...............................................................................................................280 7970_C000.indd 9 11/30/07 5:44:21 PM Appendix A Electronic Devices......................................................................... 281 A.1 Operational Amplifiers................................................................................ 281 A.1.1 Inverting Amplifier...........................................................................283 A.1.2 Noninverting Amplifier....................................................................284 A.1.3 Current-to-Voltage Converter...........................................................284 A.1.4 Differential Amplifier.......................................................................285 A.2 Trigger Electronics.......................................................................................286 A.3 Frequency Filters..........................................................................................290 A.3.1 Filter Basics.......................................................................................290 A.3.2 Active Filters.....................................................................................293 References...............................................................................................................295 Appendix B Optics..............................................................................................297 Optical Instruments................................................................................................305 Diffraction..............................................................................................................307 Diffraction Grating................................................................................................. 311 Interference............................................................................................................. 312 References............................................................................................................... 313 Appendix C Electromagnetics and Electromagnetic Radiation......................... 315 C.1 Maxwell¿s Equations.................................................................................... 315 C.2 Electromagnetic Wave Equation.................................................................. 317 C.3 Radiative Transfer Equation........................................................................ 322 C.3.1 Blackbody Radiation.........................................................................324 References............................................................................................................... 329 Appendix D Quantum Mechanics and Atomic/Molecular Structure................. 331 D.1 Vibrational and Rotational Energy of Simple Molecules............................ 339 D.2 Energy Transitions and Spectroscopy.......................................................... 341 References............................................................................................................... 343 7970_C000.indd 10 11/30/07 5:44:
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Fluid dynamics.
Thermodynamics.