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Contents Preface 3 Contents 9 1. Foreword-Overview. Wood-Plastic Composites 36 WPC, pricing restrictions 39 WPC, brands and manufacturers 41 Flexural strength 42 Flexural modulus, deflection 46 Deck boards 47 Stair treads 50 Thermal expansion-contraction 53 Shrinkage 57 Slip resistance 60 Water absorption, swell, buckling 62 Microbial degradation 66 Termite resistance 70 Flammability 73 Oxidation and crumbling 75 Photo-oxidation and fading 80 Wood-plastic composites ? products, trends, market size and dynamics, and unsolved (or only partially solved) problems 83 WPC products 83 The public view, perception 84 WPC market size and dynamics 87 Competition on the WPC market 91 Unsolved (or only partially solved) R&D problems 91 Examples of wood-plastic composite deck boards 94 References 94 2. Composition of wood-plastic composites: thermoplastics 95 Introduction 97 Polyethylene 99 -- Low density polyethylene (LDPE) 107 -- Medium density polyethylene (MDPE) 109 -- High density polyethylene (HDPE) 109 Polypropylene 114 Polyvinyl Chloride 119 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene copolymer (ABS) 126 Nylon 6 and other polyamides 130 Conclusion 137 Addendum: ASTM tests covering definitions of technical terms and their contractions used in plastic industry and specifications of plastics 138 -- ASTM D 883 ?Standard terminology relating to plastics 138 -- ASTM D 1600 ?Standard terminology for abbreviated terms relating to plastics? 143 -- ASTM D 1784 ?Standard specification for rigid Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) compounds and chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) compounds? 144 -- ASTM D 1972 ?Standard practice for generic marking of plastic products 144 -- ASTM D 4066 ?Standard classification system for Nylon injection and extrusion materials (PA)? 146 -- ASTM D 4101 ?Standard specification for polypropylene injection and extrusion materials? 146 -- ASTM D 4216 ?Standard specification for rigid Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) and related PVC and chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) building products compounds? 147 -- ASTM D 4396 ?Standard specification for rigid Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) and chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) compounds for plastic pipe and fittings used in nonpressure applications? 148 --ASTM D 4673 ?Standard classification system for Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) plastics and alloys molding and extrusion materials? 148 -- ASTM D 4976 ?Standard specification for polyethylene plastics molding and extrusion materials? 149 -- ASTM D 5203 "Standard specification for polyethylene plastics molding and extrusion materials from recycled post-consumer (HDPE) sources? 152 -- ASTM D 6263 ?Standard specification for extruded rods and bars made from rigid Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) and chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC)? 152 -- ASTM D 6779 ?Standard classification system for polyamide molding and extrusion materials (PA)? 153 References 153 3. Composition of wood-plastic composites: cellulose and lignocellulose fillers 154 Introduction 156 A brief history of cellulose fillers in WPC in U.S. patents 159 Beginning of WPC. Thermosetting materials 162 Cellulose as a reinforcing ingredient in thermoplastic compositions 165 Improving mechanical and other properties of WPC 172 Improving the compatibility of the fillers with the polymeric matrix. Coupling agents 177 Plastics beyond HDPE in wood-plastic composite materials 184 Cellulose-polyolefin composite pellets 192 Foamed wood-plastic composites 194 Biodegradable wood-plastic composites 197 General properties of lignocellulosic fiber as fillers 199 Chemical composition 199 Detrimental effect of lignin 203 Detrimental effect of hemicellulosics. Steam explosion 203 Aspect ratio 205 Density (specific gravity) 206 Particle size 209 Particle shape 210 Particle size distribution 211 Particle surface area 212 Moisture content, the ability to absorb water 213 The ability of filler to absorb oil 214 Flammability 214 Effect on mechanical properties of the composite material 214 Effect on fading and durability of plastics and composites 216 Effect on hot melt viscosity 217 Effect on mold shrinkage 218 Wood fiber 219 Wood flour 219 Saw dust 220 Rice hulls 221 VOC from rice hulls 224 Long natural fiber 227 Papermaking sludge 228 Biodac? 231 VOC from Biodac? 232 Rice hulls and Biodac? as antioxidants in WPC 235 References (other than patents) 235 References (patents) 235 4. Composition of wood-plastic composites: mineral fillers 236 Introduction 237 General properties of mineral fillers 240 Chemical composition 240 Aspect ratio 241 Density (specific gravity) 241 Particle size 243 Particle shape 244 Particle size distribution 244 Particle surface area 245 Moisture content, the ability to absorb water 245 The ability to absorb oil 246 Flame retardant properties 247 Effect on mechanical properties of the composite material 248 Effect on hot melt viscosity 250 Effect on mold shrinkage 250 Thermal properties 251 Color, optical properties 252 Effect on fading and durability of plastics and composites 252 Health and safety 254 Fillers 255 Calcium carbonate 255 Talc 260 Biodac? (a blend of cellulose and mineral fillers) 268 Silica 274 Kaolin clay 275 Mica 276 Wollastonite 277 Glass fibers 279 Fly ash 280 Carbon black 288 Nanofillers and nanocomposites 289 Conclusions 293 References 294 5. Composition of wood-plastic composites: coupling agents 295 Introduction 296 A brief overview of the chapter 302 Maleated polyolefins 306 Organosilanes 315 MetablenTM A3000 320 Other coupling agents 321 Effect of coupling agents on mechanical properties of wood-plastic composites: experimental data 322 Mechanisms of cross-linking, coupling and/or compatibilizing effects 326 Spectroscopic studies 327 Rheological studies 330 Kinetic studies 333 Other considerations 334 Effect of coupling agents on WPC properties: a summary 337 Effect on flexural and tensile modulus 341 Effect on flexural and tensile strength 343 Effect on water absorption 345 Lubricants, compatible and not compatible with coupling agents 346 References 350 6. Density (specific gravity) of wood-plastic composites and its effect on WPC properties 351 Introduction 352 Effect of density (specific gravity) of WPC 357 Effect on flexural strength and modulus 357 Effect on oxidation and degradation 358 Effect on flammability, ignition, flame spread 361 Effect on moisture content and water absorption 362 Effect on microbial contamination/degradation 363 Effect on shrinkage 365 Effect on the coefficient of friction (the slip coefficient) 365 Density of cross-sectional areas of hollow profiles of GeoDeck WPC boards 367 Densities and weight of some commercial wood-plastic deck boards 372 Determination of density of wood-plastic composites using a sink/float method 372 ASTM tests recommended for determination of the specific gravity (density)??.376 -- ASTM D 1611 ?Standard test method for bulk density and specific gravity of plastic lumber and shapes by displacement? 376 -- ASTM D 792 ?Standard test method for density and specific gravity (relative density) of plastics by displacement? 379 ASTM D 1505 ?Standard test method for density of plastics by the density-gradient technique? 381 ASTM D 1622 ?Standard test method for apparent density of rigid cellular plastics? 383 ASTM D 1895 ?Standard test methods for apparent density, bulk factor, and pourability of plastic materials? 385 References 386 7. Flexural strength (MOR) and flexural modulus (MOE) of composite materials and profiles 387 Introduction 390 Basic definitions and equations 391 -- Moment of Inertia 394 -- Bending moment 400 ASTM recommendations 405 -- ASTM D 790, ?Standard test methods for flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced plastics and electrical insulating materials? 405 -- ASTM D 6109, ?Standard test methods for flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced plastic lumbers? 414 -- ASTM D 6272, ?Standard test methods for flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced plastics and electrical insulating materials by four-point bending? 424 Flexural strength of composite deck boards 434 -- English units and SI units 434 -- Center point load, or concentrated load (3-pt load) 435 -- Third point load (4-pt. load, or 1/3 span load) 437 -- Flexural strength of composite deck boards 438 -- Flexural strength of materials vs. profiles 441 -- Flexural strength for the same material but for different profiles................. 441 -- Comparison of center point load and third-point load 442 -- Quarter point load (4-pt load, ¼ point load) 443 -- Uniformly distributed load 447 -- Effect of temperature on flexural strength of composite materials 450 -- Effect of commercial HDPE on flexural strength of composite deck boards 450 -- Effect of density (specific gravity) of composite materials on flexural strength 452 -- Flexural strength of neat HDPE and other plastics, and comparisons with that for wood-plastic composites 452 -- Effect of plastic content on flexural strength of composite materials.....?? 453 -- A deck board used as a stair tread 454 Flexural modulus of composite deck boards 460 -- Center point load, or concentrated load (3-pt load) 462 -- Third point load (4-pt. load, or 1/3 span load) 465 -- Flexural modulus of composite deck boards 465 -- Flexural modulus of materials vs. profiles 467 -- Flexural modulus for the same material but for different profiles. Solid and hollow deck boards 468 -- Comparison of center point load and third point load 469 -- Quarter point load (4-pt load, ¼ point load) 470 -- Uniformly distributed load 472 -- Snow on a deck 473 -- Strength of a deck 473 -- Deflection 476 -- Effect of temperature on flexural modulus of composite materials 478 -- Effect of commercial HDPE on flexural modulus of composite deck boards 479 -- Effect of density (specific gravity) on flexural modulus 480 -- Effect of plastic content on flexural modulus of composite materials 481 Flexural modulus of neat HDPE and other plastics, and comparisons with that for wood-plastic composites 483 A deck board used as a stair tread: a critical role of flexural modulus 486 Deflection of composite materials: Case studies 489 1. Deflection and bending moment of a soundwall under windloads 490 2. Deflection of a fence board 498 3. Deflection of wood-plastic composite joists 501 4. Deflection of a deck under a hot tub 504 5. Deflection of a hollow deck board filled with hot water 507 6. Deflection and creep of composite deck boards 510 Guardrail systems 528 Composite (and PVC) railing systems for which ICC-ES reports were issued until October 2006 535 Combined flexural and shear strength: a ?shotgun? test 537 Mathematical modeling of wood-plastic composites and the real world 538 References 545 8. Compressive and tensile strength and modulus of composite profiles Introduction 547 Basic definitions and equations 548 ASTM recommendations 550 -- ASTM D 638, ?Standard test methods for tensile properties of plastics? 550 -- ASTM D 5083 ?Test methods for tensile properties of reinforced thermosetting plastics using straight-sided specimens? 555 -- ASTM D 695, ?Standard test method for compressive properties of rigid plastics? 557 -- ASTM D 6108, ?Standard test methods for compressive properties of unreinforced and reinforced plastic lumbers? 559 Tensile strength of composite materials: examples 562 Compressive strength of composite materials 564 Tensile modulus of elasticity of composite materials 564 Compressive modulus of composite materials 566 References 566 9. Linear shrinkage of extruded wood-plastic composites 567 Introduction 567 Origin of shrinkage 568 Size of shrinkage 572 Effect of density (specific gravity) of WPC on its shrinkage 574 Effect of extrusion regime on shrinkage 574 Annealing of composite boards 575 Warranty claims: GeoDeck composite deckboards 578 Examples of GeoDeck boards shrinkage on a deck 583 10. Temperature driven expansion-contraction of wood-plastic composites. Linear coefficient of thermal expansion-contraction 584 Introduction 585 Linear coefficient of expansion-contraction 586 Some reservations in applicability of coefficients of expansion-contraction 590 ASTM tests recommended for determination of the linear coefficient of thermal expansion-contraction 592 -- ASTM D 696 ?Standard test method for coefficient of linear thermal expansion of plastics between ?300C and 300C with a vitreous silica dilatometer? 592 -- ASTM D 6341 ?Standard test method for determination of the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of plastic lumber and plastic lumber shapes between ?30 and 1400F (-34.4 and 600C)? 597 -- ASTM E 228 ?Standard test method for linear thermal expansion of solid materials with a vitreous silica dilatometer? 598 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion-contraction for wood-plastic composites. Effect of fillers and coupling agents 599 Example: a case study 603 References 606 11. Slip resistance and coefficient of friction of composite deck boards Introduction 608 Definitions 609 Explanations and some examples 612 Slip resistance of plastics 614 Slip resistance of wood decks 615 Slip resistance of wood-plastic composite decks 616 ASTM tests recommended for determining static coefficient of friction 617 -- ASTM D 2047 ?Standard test method for static coefficient of friction of polish-coated floor surfaces as measured by the James machine? 617 -- ASTM F 1679 ?Standard test method for using a variable incidence tribometer (VIT)? 619 -- ASTM D 2394 ?Standard method for simulated service testing of wood and wood-base finish flooring? 620 Slip resistance using an inclined-plane method 624 Effect of formulation of composite deck board on slip resistance. Slip enhancers. 628 References 630 12. Water absorption by composite materials and related effects 631 Introduction 632 ?Near-surface? vs. ?into the bulk? distribution of absorbed water in composite materials 634 Effect of mineral fillers on water absorption 637 Swelling (dimensional instability), pressure development and buckling 638 Short- and long-term water absorption 646 ASTM recommendations 651 -- ASTM D 570, ?Standard test methods for water absorption of plastics? 652 -- ASTM D 1037, ?Test method for evaluating properties of wood-base fiber and particle panel materials? 655 -- ASTM D 2842 ?Test methods for water absorption of rigid cellular plastics? 657 -- ASTM D 6662 ?Standard specification for polyolefin-based plastic lumber decking boards? 659 -- ASTM D 7032 ?Standard specification for establishing performance ratings for wood-plastic composite deck boards and guardrail systems (guards or handrails)? 660 Effect of cellulose content in composite materials on water absorption 661 Effect of board density (specific gravity) on water absorption. 662 Moisture content of wood and wood-plastic composites 664 Effect of water absorption on flexural strength and modulus 665 Freeze-thaw resistance 667 Effect of board density on freeze-thaw resistance ? a case study 667 Effect of board density and weathering on freeze-thaw resistance ? a case study 669 Effect of multiple freeze-thaw cycles 670 Comparison of water absorption of some composite deck boards available on the market 671 References 672 13. Microbial degradation of wood-plastic composite materials and ?black spots? on the surface. Mold resistance 673 Introduction 675 Microbial effects on wood-plastic composites 675 Mold and spores 676 Moisture and ventilation. Critical moisture content 678 Wood decay fungi 681 Biocides and ?mold resistance? 682 Preservatives for wood lumber 684 CCA 685 ACQ 686 PCP 687 Creosote 688 Microorganisms active in degradation and staining of composite materials 689 Molds 691 Black mold 701 Black algae 702 Case study 1. Staining with a microbial pigment 703 Case study 2. Deck as a mold incubator 704 Case study 3. Black mold due to composite low density and high mosture 705 Microbial infestation of wood-plastic composite materials 707 Requirements for microbial growth on wood and wood-plastic composites 707 Sensitivity and resistance of composite materials to microbial degradation. Examples. . 710 ASTM tests recommended for microbial growth and degradation of wood-plastic composites 718 -- ASTM D 1413 ?Standard test method for wood preservatives by laboratory soil-block cultures? 718 Examples: wood 721 Examples: wood-plastic composites 722 -- ASTM D 2017 ?Standard method of accelerated laboratory test of natural decay resistance of woods? 725 -- ASTM E 2180 ?Standard test method for determining the activity of incorporated antimicrobial agent(s) in polymeric or hydrophobic materials? 727 -- ASTM G 21?Standard practice for determining resistance of synthetic polymeric materials to fungi? 730 Effect of formulation on sensitivity and resistance of wood-plastic composites to microbial degradation 732 Biocides used (actually or under consideration) in wood-plastic composites 733 -- Zinc borate, Borogard, Fiberguard 733 -- Barium metaborate, Busan 739 -- Folpet, Fungitrol 11, Intercide TMP (carboximide) 740 -- Chlorothalonil (tetrachloroisophthalonitrile), Nuocide 960 746 -- OBPA, Intercide ABF (10,10?- Oxybisphenoxyarsine), Vinizene PP 5-5 746 -- IBPC, Polyphase?, Troy?, Intercide IBF(2-iodo-2-propynyl-n-butylcarbamate) 749 -- OIT, octhilinone, Intercide OBF, Micro-Chek (2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin- -3-one) 751 -- Zinc Pyrithione, Zinc Omadine, Intercide ZNP, zinc derivative of 2-mercaptopyridine 1-oxide 752 -- Thiabendazole, Irgaguard F3000, 2-(4-Thiazolyl)-1H-benzimidazole, 4-(2-benzimidazolyl)thiazole, Thiabendazole, MK-360, TBZ 753 Biocides: accelerated laboratory data and the real world 754 References 757 14. Flammability and fire rating of wood-plastic composites 758 Introduction 759 Flammability of wood 762 Ignition of composite materials 763 Flame spread indexes (FSI) and fire rating of composite materials 766 Effect of mineral fillers on flammability 768 Smoke and toxic gases, and smoke development index (SDI) 769 Flame retardants for plastics and composite materials 770 -- Flame retardants in plastics 776 -- Restrictions or prohibitions of some brominated flame retardants 777 -- Chlorine-containing flame retardants 779 -- ATH (aluminum trihydrate) and MDH (magnesium hydroxide) 782 -- ATH dehydration: a quantitative approach 784 -- Flame retardants with wood plastic composites 788 -- Nano-particles as flame retardants 789 ASTM recommendations 792 -- ASTM D 635 ?Standard test method for rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning of plastics in a horizontal position? 792 -- ASTM D 1929 ?Standard test method for determining ignition temperature of plastics? 794 -- ASTM E 84, ?Standard test method for surface burning characteristics of building materials? 797 -- ASTM E 1354 ?Standard test method for heat and visible smoke release rates for materials and products using an oxygen consumption calorimeter? 801 -- ASTM E 162 ?Standard test method for surface flammability of materials using a radiant heat energy source? 804 -- E 662 ?Standard test method for specific optical density of smoke generated by solid materials? 806 Fire performance of composite decks and deck boards 808 References 808 15. Thermo- and photo-oxidative degradation and lifetime of composite building materials 809 Introduction. Lifetime of plastics and plastic-based composites. Examples 812 Thermo-oxidation, photo-oxidation, oxidative degradation, and product crumbling and failure 817 Factors accelerating the oxidative degradation of composites 827 Density (specific gravity) of the composite 828 Temperature 835 The physical and the chemical structure of the polymer 844 History of plastic (virgin, recycled) 848 The type and amount of cellulose fiber 849 The type and amount of mineral fillers 850 The presence of stress 851 The presence of metal catalysts 854 The presence of moisture 858 Antioxidants and their amounts 862 Solar radiation (UV light) 872 Amount of added regrinds, if any 887 ASTM recommendations 891 ASTM tests for oxidative induction time 891 -- ASTM D 3895 ?Standard test method for oxidative-induction time of polyolefins by differential scanning calorimetry? 891 -- ASTM D 5885 ?Standard test method for oxidative induction time of polyolefin geosynthetics by high-pressure differential scanning calorimetry? 898 ASTM tests for determination of phenolic antioxidants in plastics 900 -- ASTM D 1996 ?Standard test method for determination of phenolic antioxidants and erucamide slip additives in low density polyethylene using liquid chromatography 902 -- ASTM D 5524 ?Standard test method for determination of phenolic antioxidants in high density polyethylene using liquid chromatography? 904 -- ASTM D 5815 ?Standard test method for determination of phenolic antioxidants and erucamide slip additives in linear low-density polyethylene using liquid chromatography? 904 -- ASTM D 6042 ?Standard test method for determination of phenolic antioxidants and erucamide slip additives in polypropylene homopolymer formulations using liquid chromatography? 905 -- ASTM D 6953 ?Standard test method for determination of antioxidants and erucamide slip additives in polyethylene using liquid chromatography? 906 -- ASTM D 3012 ?Standard test method for thermal-oxidative stability of polypropylene using a specimen rotator within an oven 907 -- ASTM D 5510 ?Standard practice for heat aging of oxidatively degradable plastics? 910 Surface temperature of composite decking and railing systems 911 Life span of zero-antioxidant GeoDeck decks in various areas of the U.S. 918 The OIT and lifetime of composite deck boards. 930 Durability (in terms of oxidative degradation) of wood-plastic composite decks available on the current market 932 Oxidative degradation and crumbling of GeoDeck deck boards. History of the case and correction of the problem. 935 Density, porosity, and mechanical properties of GeoDeck before the problem had emerged. 936 Emerging of the problem 939 Density (specific gravity) of GeoDeck boards in pre-October 2003 941 Correction of the crumbling problem 942 -- Antioxidant level 942 -- Density 943 -- OIT procedure. Proxy of lifetime at accelerated oxidation 944 -- Accelerated (artificial) weathering 946 -- Air-flow oven 948 Addendum. Test method for oxidative-induction time of filled composite material by differential scanning calorimetry 951 Case studies 955 GeoDeck decks crumbling in Arizona. 955 GeoDeck decks crumbling in Massachusetts. 955 GeoDeck voluntary recall 957 Problem GeoDeck decks: installation time and warranty claims 957 References 960 16. Photo-oxidation and fading of composite building materials 961 Introduction. 963 How fading is measured? 964 Fading. Some introductory definitions 968 Accelerated and natural weathering of wood-plastic composite materials, and a correlation (or a lack of it) between them. The acceleration factor 972 Fading of commercial wood-plastic composite materials 986 Fading of composite deck boards vs. their crumbling due to oxidation 992 Factors accelerating or slowing down fading of composites 995 Density (specific gravity) of the composite 995 Temperature 996 UV absorbers and their amounts 997 Pigments and their amounts 997 Antioxidants and their amounts 999 History of plastics (virgin, recycled) 1000 Effect of moisture in the composite 1001 The type and amount of cellulose fiber 1002 Extruded vs. injection molded wood-plastic composite materials 1002 ASTM recommendations 1003 -- ASTM D 2565 ?Standard practice for Xenon arc exposure of plastics intended for outdoor applications? 1003 -- ASTM D 1435 ?Standard practice for outdoor weathering of plastics? 1006 -- ASTM D 4329 ?Practice for fluorescent UV exposure of plastics? 1008 -- ASTM D 4364 ?Practice for performing outdoor accelerated weathering tests of plastics using concentrated sunlight? 1009 -- ASTM D 4459 ?Practice for xenon-arc exposure of plastics intended for indoor applications? 1010 -- ASTM D 5071 ?Practice for exposure of photodegradable plastics in a xenon arc apparatus? 1011 -- ASTM D 5208 ?Practice for fluorescent ultraviolet (UV) exposure of photodegradable plastics? 1012 -- ASTM D 5272 ?Practice for outdoor exposure testing of photodegradable plastics? 1014 -- ASTM G 155 ?Standard practice for operating xenon arc light apparatus for exposure of non-metallic materials? 1014 Addendum: Some definitions and technical terms used in descriptions of photodegradation of plastics and wood-plastic composites 1016 References 1025 17. Rheology and a selection of incoming plastics for composite materials 1026 Introduction. Rheology of neat and filled plastics, composite materials and regrinds 1028 Basic definitions and equations 1031 -- Shear rate, shear stress, shear viscosity, dynamic viscosity, apparent viscosity, limiting viscosity 1031 -- Shear-thinning effect and the power law equation 1035 -- Volumetric flow rate and a pressure gradient along the capillary 1043 -- Wall slip phenomenon 1048 -- The Rabinowitsch correction 1049 ASTM recommendations in the area of capillary rheometry 1051 -- ASTM D 1238-04, ?Standard test method for melt flow rates of thermoplastics by extrusion plastometer? 1052 -- ASTM D 3835-02, ?Standard test method for determination of properties of polymeric materials by means of a capillary rheometer? 1055 -- ASTM D 5422-03, ?Standard test method for measurement of properties of thermoplastic materials by screw-extrusion capillary rheometer? 1057 ASTM recommendations in the area of rotational rheometry 1059 -- ASTM D 4440-01, ?Standard test method for plastics: dynamic mechanical properties melt rheology? 1059 -- ASTM D 4065-01, ?Standard practice for plastics: dynamic mechanical properties: determination and report of procedures? 1063 Common observations 1064 Neat plastics 1064 -- Molecular weight of polyethylenes and viscosity of their hot melts 1064 -- Effect of temperature on viscosity 1065 -- The power-law index of some neat plastics 1068 -- The power-law index and molecular weight distribution 1069 Composite materials 1070 -- Rheology of filled plastics and wood plastic composites 1070 -- Filler increases the dynamic viscosity 1071 -- Viscosity and the power-law index of wood-plastic composites 1073 -- Steady shear viscosity and dynamic viscosity data 1075 -- Capillary rheometer and an extruder: are they in agreement? 1079 -- Extrudate swell 1080 Almost uncharted areas of composite and plastic rheology 1082 -- Effect of filler particle size on the rheology of wood-plastic composites 1082 -- Effect of coupling agents, lubricants and polymer processing additives 1083 -- Varying plastic sources ? which to choose for composite materials? 1087 -- Rheology of regrinds of wood-plastic composites 1094 -- Melt fracture of neat plastics and their composites and regrinds. Surface tearing 1098 References 1113 Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Plastic-impregnated wood.
Engineered wood.
Strength of materials.