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Table of Contents 1 The Role of Assessment in Instruction The Process of Assessment Ethical Responsibility Assessment and Self-Efficacy Assessment Inadequacy Assessment Competency Standards The Need for a Systematic Approach to Assessment Assessment Instruments Summary 2 The Language of Assessment" Assessment Measurement Evaluation Instructional Objectives Learning Outcomes Blueprint Item Bank Test Interpreting Test Scores High Stakes Tests Grade Test Bias Reliability Validity Face Validity Basic Test Statistics Summary 3 Developing Instructional Objectives Role of Objectives Focus of lnstructional Objectives Stating Instructional Objectives Learning Outcomes Mastery Level Objectives Developmental Level Objectives Framework for Writing Objectives Taxonomies Utilizing Instructional Objectives Criteria for Effective Objectives Summary 4 Assessing Critical Thinking Accreditation Outcomes Establishing Evidence of Validity Defining Critical Thinking in Nursing Sample Definition of Critical Thinking in Nursing Instructional Objectives and Learner Outcomes Behaviors Associated with the Characteristics of Critical Thinking Tri-Level Critical Thinking Objective Critical Thinking Assessment Plan Multiple-Choice Exams and Critical Thinking Summary 5 Implementing Systematic Test Development Initiating Test Development Scheduling a Semester¿s Exams Identifying the Purpose of the Test Determining the Length of the Test Selecting What to Test Selecting the Appropriate Assessment Format Weighting the Content and Course Objectives Developing a Test Blueprint Reviewing the Blueprint Preparing Students for a Test Determining How Difficult a Test Should Be Summary 6 Selected Response Format: Developing Multiple-Choice Items Advantages of Multiple-Choice Items Limitations of Multiple-Choice Items Relevance of Multiple-Choice Items Item Writing Logistics Style Guide Electronic Item Development Multiple-Choice Format Stem Formats Item Writing Guidelines Alternate NCLEX Items Item Rationale Question Difficulty Framing Questions in Terms of the Nursing Process Item Shells Peer Review Summary 7 Writing Critical Thinking Multiple-Choice Items Characteristics of Critical Thinking Items Applying Learning Outcomes Critical Thinking and the Nursing Process Summary 8 Selected Response Format: Developing True-False and Matching Items The True-False Item Format Advantages of the True-False Item Format Disadvantages of the True-False Item Format Guidelines for Developing True-False Items Characteristics of Effective true-False Items Flaws to Avoid with True-False Items Forms for True-False Item Writing Types of True-False Items Matching Exercise Format Advantages of the Matching Exercise Format Disadvantages of the Matching Exercise Format General Guidelines for Matching Exercises Summary 9 Constructed Response Format: Developing Short-Answer and Essay Items The Short-Answer Format Advantages of the Short-Answer Item Format Disadvantages of the Short-Answer Item Format Guidelines for Developing Short-Answer Items Characteristics of Effective Short-Answer Items Essay Questions Forms of Essay Questions Advantages of the Essay Question Disadvantages of the Essay Question Guidelines for Developing Essay Questions Suggestions for Scoring Essay Items Scoring Rubrics Developing Scoring Rubrics Developing Essay Items to Assess Critical Thinking Summary 10 Assembling, Administering, and Scoring a Test Assembling a Test Arranging Items Editing and Proofreading Formatting Providing Directions Reproducing Maintaining Security Administering a Test Academic Dishonesty Scoring a Test Student Review Summary 11 Preparing Students for the Licensure Exam: The Importance of NCLEX The NCLEX Application Process Development of the NCLEX Characteristics of NCLEX Items Characteristics of the NCLEX Examination Preparing Nursing Students for the NCLEX Progression Policies Facilitating Student Success NCLEX Prep Courses Summary 12 Establishing Evidence of Reliability and Validity Reliability Measures of Reliability Factors Affecting the Reliability Coefficient of Classroom Exams Measurement Error Validity Content Validity Index Interpretation of the Validity Coefficient Summary 13 Interpreting Test Results Overall Test Data Analysis Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Reliability Coefficient Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) Mean p-value Mean Biserial Score Distribution Histogram Individual Item Analysis Assigning Test Scores Flawed Items Returning Scores to Students Summary 14 Laboratory and Clinical Evaluation Relevance of Objectives Elements of the Clinical/Laboratory Experience Blending Thought and Action Identification of Clinical Action Elements The Professional Role Designing and Using a Performance Tool Using a Taxonomy Assessment of Mastery Level Learning Assessment of Developmental Level Learning Portfolio Assessment Implementing a Clinical Evaluation Tool Summary 15 Assigning Grades Grading Principles Philosophy of Grading Developing a Grading Plan Weighting Components of a Grade Pass/Fail Grading Adjusting Grades Summary 16 Instituting Item Banking and Test Development Software Establishing an Item Bank Selecting a Test Development Software Program Implementing Test Development Software Appointing Test Bank Administrators Establishing Procedures Incorporating Textbook Item Banks Summary Appendixes A Basic Test Statistics B Basic Style Guide C Targeting Cognitive Levels for Item Writing D Sample Item Stems for Phases of the Nursing Process E Steps for Implementing a Systematic Assessment Plan F Relationship of Critical Thinking Characteristics to the Nursing Process References Index Preface ¿Nursing faculty at our school have a part-time schedule. They only work twelve hours each day.¿ Anonymous Nursing Faculty Member Strategies for Assessing Learning Outcomes: A Comprehensive Reference for Nurse Educators is the second edition of Systematic Assessment of Learning Outcomes: Developing Multiple-Choice Exams. The motivation for writing the first edition came from my experience as a nurse educator and an Educational Assessment Consultant. I observed that nursing faculty, who were accustomed to preparing countless classroom tests, were well aware of the magnitude of the challenge and responsibility that fair student assessment entails. Yet, while they knew what they want to assess, many were not confident in their ability to develop or interpret measurement instruments. My goal was to assist nurse educators to increase their level of confidence in the decisions they had to make about students based on the results of their multiple-choice classroom exams. The first edition provided a comprehensive review of the principles for developing a systematic assessment plan including detailed guidelines for generating learning objectives and outcomes, developing blueprints, administering and scoring exams, analyzing statistical test data, assigning grades and implementing test development software. Because multiple-choice tests are so frequently used as the basis for classroom assessment in nursing education, the first edition focused on providing guidelines for how to develop trustworthy classroom exams in the multiple-choice format. Since the publication of the first edition, I have continued to work with nurse educators across the country in a variety of settings to improve their assessment skills. I continue to find that they are intensely interested in improving their assessment expertise because they want to ensure that their methods are fair to the students whose lives are affected by their decisions. Many of these nurse educators expressed an interest in having an expanded reference; one that applies the principles of the first edition to a variety of assessment formats in addition to the multiple-choice format. In response to many requests, this edition expands the first edition of the book to offer nurse educators a more comprehensive assessment resource. This edition is more than a revision of the first edition. Its expanded scope provides a reference that clarifies every aspect of the process for developing classroom exams as an integral aspect of a plan for the systematic assessment of learning outcomes. While the development of multiple-choice exams remains a focus in this edition, four new chapters have been added and all of the chapters have been updated; some with minor and many with major revisions. One of the new chapters provides an in-depth discussion of the issues related to the revised National Council Licensure Examination (NCLEX), while the other three address the development of a variety of measurement instrument formats, including ¿ Selected-response items ¿ Constructed-response items ¿ Clinical evaluation ¿ Psychomotor assessment The new title reflects the extended scope of this valuable reference. While the principles introduced in the first edition have not changed, the second edition expands the discussion based on reader feedback and incorporates the ideas and insights of numerous nurse educators who have shared their experiences with me. Dozens of new examples are included, tables are updated, and new worksheets are introduced. The improvements in this edition increase its usefulness as a resource for nurse educators in both the education and practice settings for developing valid and reliable assessment plans. This edition of the book has a dual focus. It is a textbook for the continuing professional development of nurse educators and for prospective nurse educators in graduate school programs. It is also useful as a text and a reference for experienced nurse educators. In fact, although the examples are all nursing related, educators in all fields will find that this book includes extensive and detailed practical information about classroom test development. Chapter Synopsis There is considerable overlap in the components of the assessment process; therefore there are numerous possibilities for arranging the sequences of the topics in this book. The order selected here reflects an attempt to organize the process of assessment for the reader. Because several of the topics apply to a variety of assessment situations they are referred to in several chapters. Therefore, you will note that I frequently refer the reader to discussion on the topic in a previous chapter or indicate that the topic will be further developed in a subsequent chapter. This approach is designed to assist the reader to access discussion on topics that are unfamiliar and provides a reference that is organized for ease of access during the process of test development. Chapter 1, ¿The Role of Assessment in Instruction,¿ reviews the role of assessment in the educational process and discusses the rationale for developing a systematic plan for the assessing educational outcomes. The ethical responsibilities associated with classroom testing, the implications of assessment decisions on the lives of students, and assessment competency standards of educators are reviewed. In this edition the efforts of professional nursing organizations to enhance the educational expertise of nurse educators are reviewed. Assessment terminology is reviewed in Chapter 2, ¿The Language of Assessment.¿ An overview of the principles of assessment is presented, and the common language associated with educational assessment is reviewed and explained. The chapter is meant as an introduction to assessment concepts and terminology, which will enhance the reader¿s understanding of the discussion in the chapters that follow. The essential nature of reliability and validity in the process of test development is reviewed. This edition adds a discussion of the revised guidelines for establishing validity evidence, as a basis for establishing trustworthy assessment instruments. The role of objectives as the foundation for the instructional process is presented in Chapter 3, ¿Developing Instructional Objectives.¿ Guidelines for developing objectives and learning outcomes and criteria for writing effective objectives are proposed. The chapter also identifies the characteristics of mastery- and developmental-level objectives and addresses the application of strategies to assess those objectives. This edition adds a detailed example for developing learning outcomes that illustrate progression toward program objectives and also elaborates on the discussion in the first edition related to applying the levels of the cognitive domain to classroom test development (Bloom, 1956). Critical thinking in nursing is discussed in Chapter 4, ¿Assessing Critical Thinking.¿ The need for developing a definition of the construct is discussed and the characteristics of critical thinking, as identified in the nursing literature, are reviewed. A definition of critical thinking is proposed as a basis for test development, and an instructional objective is developed from that definition. The challenge of assessing critical thinking with a variety of assessment methods is addressed, including the identification of specific critical thinking behaviors that can be translated into multiple-choice items. Chapter 5, ¿Implementing Systematic Test Development,¿ examines the process of developing tests in a variety of formats. A systematic approach for outlining content and blueprint development is proposed. In this edition, particular attention is paid to selecting the appropriate assessment format for assessing course objectives. In addition, this edition includes detailed discussion related to determining how difficult a test should be and also addresses the issues associated with preparing students for a test. Chapter 6, ¿Selected Response Format: Developing Multiple-Choice Items,¿ continues the discussion of test development by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of multiple-choice exams. The characteristics of effective multiple-choice items are examined in detail and guidelines are also proposed for improving item writing. This edition includes additional suggestions and adds to the numerous item examples that were offered in the first edition. Strategies for framing questions in the new NCLEX Alternate Item Format are also suggested, with illustrative examples included. Chapter 7, ¿Writing Critical Thinking Multiple-Choice Items,¿ builds on the previous chapters to present the issues associated with the creation of critical thinking multiple-choice items. The characteristics of critical thinking multiple-choice items are presented, and specific examples directly related to previously established learning outcomes are offered. Strategies for crafting multiple-choice items to assess critical thinking are proposed. Detailed guidelines for writing true-false and matching items are provided in Chapter 8, ¿Selected Response Format: Developing True-False and Matching Items.¿ The advantages and disadvantages of these item types are discussed and detailed item writing guidelines with numerous specific examples are provided. The constructed response format is often the best choice for accurately assessing an objective. Chapter 9, ¿Constructed Response Format: Developing Short-Answer and Essay Items,¿ is focused on discussing the advantages and disadvantages and providing detailed guidelines for developing and scoring items in this format. Scoring rubrics are discussed with examples and suggestions are offered for developing essay exams that assess critical thinking. As in the previous chapters, numerous examples are offered to illustrate the guidelines that are presented. Issues related to assembling, administering, and scoring tests are addressed in Chapter 10, ¿Assembling, Administering, and Scoring a Test.¿ Concerns such as cheating and maintaining test security throughout the testing process are discussed. The chapter also deals with the considerations for qualitative peer review, student post-test review, and student challenges to exam questions. Discussion related to computer administration of exams and plagiarism is added in this edition. Chapter 11, ¿Preparing Students for the Licensure Exam: The Importance of NCLEX,¿ is another new addition to the second edition. The chapter offers valuable information to familiarize nursing faculty with the NCLEX process. It also examines the complex issues associated with the preparing students for the NCLEX including, curriculum focus, predictor exams, progression policies, and NCLEX prep courses. Valuable suggestions for facilitating student success are presented. Chapter 12, ¿Establishing Evidence of Reliability and Validity,¿ examines the issue of documenting the reliability and validity of a test. Measures of reliability and the effects of measurement error are discussed. Validity is also examined as a crucial ingredient for teacher confidence in assessment decisions. Statistical formulas are presented for those who appreciate a mathematical explanation of the concepts of reliability. A careful test analysis is a prerequisite for assigning objective scores to a multiple-choice exam. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses contribute to fair evaluation of a measurement instrument. Chapter 13, ¿Interpreting Test Results,¿ explains the meaning of the statistics included in a test data report as the basis for translating raw test scores into fair grade assignments. Individual item analysis is also carefully examined both as a test analysis tool and for its value in guiding the improvement of existing items. Thanks to Veronica Phillips Arikian, the author of Chapter 14, ¿Laboratory and Clinical Evaluation,¿ for this valuable new addition to this book. In this chapter, Dr. Arikian establishes the importance of the course objectives when designing both clinical experiences and evaluation tools. The process of clinical teaching and evaluation is closely examined, from the perspectives of both mastery- and developmental-level learning. Valuable suggestions are offered for both designing and using clinical evaluation tools, as well as for incorporating portfolio assessments in the evaluation plan. Sample evaluative tools that incorporate the course objectives and are based on scoring rubrics are included. One of the most difficult aspects of the teacher's role is grading. Chapter 15, ¿Assigning Grades¿ examines how a grading plan evolves from the principles of grading and a teacher¿s personal grading philosophy. Practical suggestions for implementing a grading plan, including issues such as criterion versus norm-referenced grading, are explored. Chapter 16, ¿Instituting Item Banking and Test Development Software,¿ concludes the book with practical suggestions and examples for improving items based on item analysis, establishing an item bank, and for implementing test development software. This edition presents a comprehensive overview of the requirements for utilizing a system to streamline the development and improvement of multiple-choice items. The objective of this chapter is to consolidate the important information that will help you expedite the process of implementing these programs. Several websites that offer valuable information for investigating test development software are included. This book translates the principles and practices of assessment into guidelines that will assist you to develop a plan for systematic assessment of learning outcomes. While the book should be read from cover to cover, it is not meant to be read once and put on your bookshelf. As with the first edition, it is useful as both an introductory textbook and a working reference for educators who are seriously interested in developing trustworthy assessment instruments. Remember, there are no hard and fast assessment rules. However, you should seriously consider adopting the guidelines suggested in the following chapters because they are based on generally agreed upon opinions of measurement experts. The guidelines in this edition will provide you with comprehensive assistance for developing measurement instruments on which you can confidently base your assessment decisions.
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Nursing -- Miscellanea.
Multiple-choice examinations.
Examinations -- Design and construction.
Nursing -- Examinations -- Design and construction.
Education, Nursing.
Educational Measurement -- methods.
Program Development.