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Table of Contents Acknowledgements Executive Summary Acronyms and Abbreviations CHAPTER 1. The problems and potential solutions to water in MENA are driven by factors inside and outside the ¿water sector¿ 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Hydrology affects countries¿ water challenge, but institutions and policies determine how well they manage their resources 4 1.3. Many factors driving poor water outcomes come from outside the water sector 4 1.3.1. External factors determine how efficiently water is used 5 1.3.2. External factors determine how efficiently public funds are used 8 1.4. MENA countries are facing new water challenges 9 1.5. Meeting the water-management challenge in MENA will require addressing three types of ¿scarcity¿ 13 1.6. The pace of reform is determined by the political economy 18 1.7. Structure of the report 20 CHAPTER 2. Progress but problems 22 2.1. Introduction 22 2.2. Progress dealing with scarcity of the physical resource 22 2.2.1. Investing in securing supply 22 2.2.2. Investing in technologies to augment supply 27 2.2.3. Investing in water services: water supply and sanitation 30 2.2.4. Investing in water services: irrigation and drainage 32 2.3. Progress dealing with organizational scarcity 33 2.3.1. Investing in water organizations 33 2.3.2. Organizations for water supply and sanitation 36 2.3.3. Organizations for irrigation 38 2.3.4. Organizations to rebalance the financing burdens 39 2.3.5. Organizations to improve end-user efficiency and equity 40 2.4. Progress dealing with scarcity of accountability 41 2.5. Conclusion 44 CHAPTER 3. Several factors that drive the politics of water reform are changing 46 3.1. Introduction 46 3.2. Economic forces driving change 48 3.2.1. Agricultural transformation 48 3.2.2. Macroeconomic and fiscal shocks 56 3.3. Environmental forces driving change 61 3.4. Social forces driving change 63 3.5. International drivers of change 67 3.6. Institutional changes that can reduce the social impact of reform 71 3.6.1. Social protection 71 3.6.2. Dispute resolution 75 3.6.3. Trade facilitation 77 3.7. Conclusion 79 CHAPTER 4. MENA countries can leverage the potential for change by improving external accountability 80 4.1. Introduction 80 4.2. Strong economies and accountability mechanisms have helped some arid countries reform water management 81 4.3. MENA¿s water organizations are operating in an environment of inadequate accountability to users 83 4.4. What mechanisms foster accountability and how do they improve water outcomes? 88 4.4.1. Certain characteristics of water make good accountability particularly important 88 4.4.2. Insufficient balance between competing interests 90 4.4.3. Difficulties assessing the full costs of the problems 93 4.5. Conclusions 98 CHAPTER 5. MENA countries can meet the water management challenges of the twenty-first century by making changes inside and outside the water sector 99 5.1. Introduction 99 5.2. Options for non-water policy makers to affect political opportunities 101 5.2.1. Evaluate the level and efficiency of public expenditure on water 101 5.2.2. Define goals for public spending and cost recovery 102 5.2.3. Consider the impacts on water when evaluating policy options in other sectors 105 5.2.4. Calculate the social costs of the status quo 106 5.3. Options for improving accountability within the water sector 106 5.3.1. Create a flexible, sustainable allocation system 106 5.3.2. Clarify roles and responsibilities of different actors 109 5.3.3. Collect, agree upon and release information 112 5.3.4. Actions to improve capacity and water planning 115 5.4. Applying the approach in practice 116 5.5. Conclusion 117 Appendices Appendix 1: Water Resources Data Appendix 2: Water Services Data Appendix 3: Country Profiles Appendix 4: Mechanisms for Resolving Water Conflicts Appendix 5: Maps Map 1. Population Density Map 2. Urban Settlements Map 3. Area Equipped for Irrigation Map 4. Aridity Zones References List of Boxes Box ?1.1 Water scarcity is often mis-understood 2 Box ?1.2 Water and land disputes leave many dead, according to the Yemeni press 12 Box ?2.1 Benefits from the Aswan High Dam 24 Box ?2.2 Progress providing water supply 36 Box ?3.1 Demographic changes drive different responses to water-crisis 64 Box ?3.2 Changing social priorities affected water lobbies in Spain and the USA 66 Box ?3.3 Water as a Vehicle for Co-operation: The Nile Basin Initiative 69 Box ?3.4 Changing agricultural support in Turkey 72 Box ?4.1 Transformation of the economy and the water management system in Spain 80 Box ?5.1Changing the priority given to water through economic analysis in Ethiopia 100 Box ?5.2 Accountability mechanisms for the National Water and Sewage Corporation (NWSC), Uganda 103 Box ?5.3 Tradeable water rights can promote efficiency, sustainability and voluntary reallocation of water 106 List of Figures Figure 1: Proportion of regional surface freshwater resources stored in reservoirs ii Figure 2: Access to improved water supply and sanitation by region, 2002 ii Figure 3: Percent of total renewable water resources withdrawn by region iii Figure 1.1 Actual renewable freshwater resources per capita by region 5 Figure 1.2 MENA countries have an unusual combination of low precipitation and high variability 1 Figure 1.3 Total actual renewable water resources per capita in MENA 2 Figure 1.4 Share of water available or used by source, MENA 3 Figure 1.5 Percent of total renewable water resources withdrawn by region 10 Figure 1.6 Value of groundwater depletion in selected MENA countries 12 Figure 1.7 The three levels of scarcity 15 Figure 1.8 Model of the Political Economy of Decision-Making 20 Figure 2.1 Proportion of regional surface freshwater resources stored in reservoirs 24 Figure 2.2 Fill rate of dams in Morocco 1986-2004 25 Figure 2.3: Probability of two consecutive drought years in December in Morocco based on four different starting years 25 Figure 2.4 Evaluation of Water Policies and Organizations: MENA and Comparator Countries, 2004 35 Figure 2.5 Non-revenue water ratio for utilities in select countries and major cities 41 Figure 3.1 Political and Social Forces acting on interest groups 47 Figure 3.2 Labour Requirements of Moroccan Agriculture 50 Figure 3.3. Farm employment and the Aggregate Measure of Support (AMS) for agriculture 54 Figure 3.4 Change in agricultural value-added and GDP per capita growth, MENA, 1975-2005 55 Figure 3.5 Oil Prices Drive Budget Balances 60 Figure 3.6 Energy production and water cost recovery 61 Figure 3.7: Operating cost coverage ratio for utilities in select countries and major cities in MENA. 74 Figure 4.1 Change in share of water allocated to agriculture between 1992 and 2000 (base year varies) 84 Figure 4.2 Water Policies and Institutions are stronger but accountability weaker in MENA than in 27 comparator countries 86 Figure 4.3 Quality of services in MENA countries by relative level of accountability 88 Figure 4.4: Command area of dams, irrigation, and drainage infrastructure in Iran and Algeria 92 Figure 4.5 Annual Cost of Environmental Degradation of Water 95 Figure 5.1 Policy objectives and responses to the three stages of water management in arid regions 100 Figure 5.2 Types of benefits from services derived from different water investments 103 Figure 5.3 Map of the Northern Saharan Aquifer 113 List of Tables Table ?1.1 Perverse incentives for excess irrigation 7 Table ?1.2 Public expenditures on water as a share of GDP 8 Table ?2.1 Estimated total dam capacity and share of freshwater stored in reservoirs, by country 23 Table ?2.2 Desalination capacity in non-Gulf MENA countries 28 Table ?2.3 Percent of population with access to improved water and basic sanitation 30 Table ?2.4 Official vs. Best Estimates of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage 32 Table ?2.5. Area Equipped for Irrigation in MENA (2000) 32 Table ?2.6 Strength of environmental NGOs in the MENA region 43 Table ?3.1. Returns to water use in the MENA region by crop 50 Table ?3.2 Annual growth of fruit and vegetables sector 51 Table ?3.3 The fiscal context of irrigation and water supply sector reforms 59 Table ?3.4 Socioeconomic implications of climate change impacts on water resources in some Middle East countries 63 Table ?3.5 Mechanisms for Resolving Conflict over Water: Tradition vs. Modernity 78 Table ?4.1 Selected Operating Performance Indicators for MENA water utilities 96 Table ?4.2 Excess cost of vended water compared to utility water in Select MENA cities 97 Table ?5.1Institutional responsibility for water management 111
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Water conservation -- Middle East.
Water conservation -- Africa, North.
Water-supply -- Government policy -- Middle East.
Water-supply -- Government policy -- Africa, North.
Water-supply -- International cooperation.
Water consumption -- Measurement.