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Introduction. 1-15
Chapter one. Trade and environment within the GATT. 16-76
1.1 Article I. Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment 22
1.2 Article III. National Treatment 23
1.2.1 Article III.2. Internal taxes and charges 26
1.2.2 Article III.4. 'Laws, regulations and requirements' 32
1.3 Article XI. Quantitative restrictions on imports. 41
1.4 Article XX 44
1.4.1 US-Reformulated Gasoline 47
1.4.2 US-Shrimp/turtle 51
1.4.3 EC-Asbestos 59
1.5 Article XXIII:1(b) 62
1.6 The WTO Agreements
and Multilateral Environmental Agreements ('MEAs') 66
1.6.1 Jurisdictional overlap 67
1.6.2 Substantive conflict 70
Chapter two. The WTO Side Agreements (1).
The TBT and SPS Agreements. 77-109
2.1 The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade
(the 'TBT Agreement'). 77
2.2 The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary
and Phyto-Sanitary Measures (the 'SPS Agreement') 86
2.2.1 EC-Beef Hormones 94
2.2.2 Australia Salmon 102
2.2.3 Japan Varietals 107
Chapter three. Genetically modified organisms
and the WTO Agreements. 110-160
3.1 The Cartagena Protocol 115
3.2 Regulation of GMOs within the EU 119
3.3 EC Biotech 127
3.4 The aftermath of the decision 142
3.5 Conclusion 148
Chapter four. WTO Side Agreements (2).
GATS, TRIMS, and TRIPS. 161-213
4.1 GATS 161
4.1.2 Article VI. Domestic Regulation 166
4.1.3 Article XVI. Market access 171
4.1.4 Article XVII. National Treatment 173
4.1.5 General Exceptions 175
4.2 TRIMS 176
4.3 The TRIPS Agreement. The impact of intellectual property rights on
environmental protection. 178
4.3.1 Farmers' rights 185
4.3.2 Traditional Knowledge 194
4.3.3 Pharmaceuticals 205
Chapter five. Trade and the environment within the EC 214-272
5.1 Quantitative Restrictions on imports and exports. Articles 28 and 29. 219
5.2 Harmonisation and national measures. The general principles 229
5.2.1 Article 95. Internal market harmonization 233
5.2.2 Article 175. Environmental harmonization 240
5.3 The two justifications for violating arts. 28 and 29 246
5.3.1 Article 30 246
5.3.2 The 'rule of reason' and mandatory requirements 249
5.3.3 Proportionality 250
5.4 Distinctly and indistinctly applicable measures 256
5.5 Extra territoriality 260
5.6. Multilateral environmental agreements and the EC. 263
5.7 Conclusion 268
Chapter Six. Investor Protection and Environmental Regulation (1).
Customary International Law,
and the European Convention on Human Rights 273-321
6.1 Customary international law on expropriation 280
6.1.1 Defining expropriation 281
6.1.2 What property can be subject to an expropriation? 293
6.1.3 Causation 296
6.1.4 Assessing the quantum of an expropriation claim 297
6.2 The European Convention on Human Rights.
Article 1 of the First Protocol. 308
6.2.1 'Deprivation of possessions' claims 310
6.2.2 'Control of use' claims 316
Chapter Seven. Investor Protection and Environmental Regulation (2). NAFTA
Chapter Eleven. 322-402
7.1 Threshold issues of definition 331
7.2 Articles 1102 and 1103 - National Treatment and Most Favoured Nation
Principles 345
7.3 - Treatment in accordance with international law - Article 1105 354
7.3.1 Initial interpretations of art.1105 356
7.3.2 The Free Trade Commission's Interpretation of art. 1105 361
7.3.3 Subsequent interpretations of art.1105 362
7.4 Performance requirements - Article 1106 368
7.5. Article 1110. Expropriation 371
7.5.1 What constitutes expropriation or a measure 'tantamount to
expropriation'? 372
7.6.1 Article 1114. Environmental Measures. 385
7.6.2 Article 1112 388
7.6.3 Article 103 389
7.6.4. Article 104 390
7.7 Recent US responses to NAFTA Jurisprudence 393
7.8 Conclusion 396
Chapter Eight. Multinational corporations and environmental liability.
US litigation: jurisdiction issues. 403-442
8.1. Establishing jurisdiction over the defendant 407
8.2. Forum non conveniens 411
8.2.1 Identifying an available alternative forum 414
8.2.2 Balancing the private interest and public interest factors 419
8.2.3 Forum non conveniens and environmental claims 420
8.2.4 Forum non conveniens and human rights claims 425
8.3 Other grounds for declining jurisdiction 433
8.3.1 Foreign Sovereign Immunity 433
8.3.2 Indispensible parties 434
8.3.3 Act of State 436
8.3.4 Political question 439
8.3.5 Comity 441
Chapter nine. Multinational corporations and environmental liability. 443-497
US litigation: substantive law. 443
9.1 Claims under the Alien Tort Claims Act 1789. 443
9.1.1 Environmental claims and ATCA 448
9.1.2 Private actor liability under international law 455
9.1.3 Private actor liability under s. 1983 465
9.2 Other statutory avenues for human rights claims 469
9.2.1 The 1991 Torture Victims Protection Act 470
9.2.2 USC s. 1331 471
9.2.3 RICO 472
9.3 Tort claims 473
9.3.1 Alter ego 474
9.3.2 Agency 477
9.3.3 Single Economic Entity 482
9.3.4 Direct Liability. 483
9.4 The chain of attribution in the Unocal litigation 487
9.5 Applicable law 496
Chapter ten. Actions against multinational corporations
before English courts 498-553
10.1 Establishing jurisdiction 498
10.2 Declining jurisdiction. 501
10.2.1. Forum non conveniens 501
10.2.2 Act of state 504
10.2.3 Sovereign immunity. 504
10.3 Tort Liability 507
10.3.1 Vicarious Liability. 'Piercing the veil' 508
10.3.2 Vicarious Liability. Agency 513
10.3.3 Direct liability 515
10.3.4 How would the English courts have dealt with the Bhopal disaster? 528
10.3.5 'Soft law' international instruments and direct liability 531
10.4. Civil liability in respect of violations of customary international law 538
10.5 Applicable law 545
10.6 Conclusion 548
Chapter Eleven. Alternative approaches to transnational pollution 554-601
11.1 International regulation of ship-source pollution 556
11.1.1 MARPOL 556
11.1.2 Enforcement jurisdiction under international law 559
11.2 Civil liability conventions on oil pollution 564
11.2 1 Liability Regime 567
11.2.2 Recoverable damage 574
11.2 3 Jurisdiction 580
11.2.4 Compulsory insurance 583
11.3 Other international civil liability conventions 584
11.4 The EC Environmental Liability Directive 2004 590
11.5 Conclusion 598
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Environmental law, International -- Economic aspects.
Foreign trade regulation.