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BRIEF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Educational Psychology and Teacher Decision Making 3 PART I DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY Chapter 2 Cognitive and Linguistic Development 21 Chapter 3 Personal and Social Development 63 Chapter 4 Group Differences 109 Chapter 5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs 147 PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION Chapter 6 Learning and Cognitive Processes 191 Chapter 7 Knowledge Construction 231 Chapter 8 Higher-Level Cognitive Processes 265 Chapter 9 Behaviorist Views of Learning 305 Chapter 10 Social Cognitive Views of Learning 343 Chapter 11 Motivation and Affect 383 Chapter 12 Cognitive Factors in Motivation 415 PART III CLASSROOM STRATEGIES Chapter 13 Instructional Strategies 451 Chapter 14 Creating a Productive Learning Environment 499 Chapter 15 Classroom Assessment Strategies 543 Chapter 16 Summarizing Student Achievement 593 Appendix A Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients A-1 Appendix B Answers to ¿Practice for Your Licensure Exam¿ Exercises B-1 Appendix C Matching the Book to the Praxis Exam C-1 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index N-1 Subject Index S-1 CONTENTS Chapter 1 Educational Psychology and Teacher Decision Making 3 Case Study: Starting High School 4 Teaching as Decision Making 5 Using Research in Classroom Decision Making 6 Drawing Conclusions from Research 8 Applying Psychological Theories in Classroom Decision Making 11 Importance of Regular Assessments in Classroom Decision Making 12 Accommodating Diversity in the Classroom 13 Developing as a Teacher 13 Strategies for Studying and Learning Effectively 16 The Big Picture 17 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: New Software 18 PART I DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY Chapter 2 Cognitive and Linguistic Development 21 Case Study: Economic Activities 21 Basic Principles of Human Development 23 Role of the Brain in Learning and Development 25 Piaget¿s Theory of Cognitive Development 28 Piaget¿s Basic Assumptions 29 Piaget¿s Stages of Cognitive Development 31 Current Perspectives on Piaget¿s Theory 36 Vygotsky¿s Theory of Cognitive Development 38 Vygotsky¿s Basic Assumptions 39 Current Perspectives on Vygotsky¿s Theory 43 Linguistic Development 49 Theoretical Issues Regarding Linguistic Development 49 Trends in Linguistic Development 50 Learning a Second Language 54 Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development 55 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 56 Addressing the Unique Needs of English Language Learners 56 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 57 The Big Picture 58 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Stones Lesson 59 Chapter 3 Personal and Social Development 63 Case Study: Hidden Treasure 63 Personality Development 64 Temperament 64 Parents¿ Influences 66 Cultural Expectations and Socialization 68 Development of a Sense of Self 69 Factors Influencing Sense of Self 70 Developmental Changes in Sense of Self 72 Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understandings 76 Roles of Peers in Children¿s Development 77 Characteristics of Peer Relationships 79 Social Cognition 82 Aggression 87 Fostering Social Skills 89 Promoting Social Interaction Among Diverse Groups 90 Moral and Prosocial Development 92 Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior 92 Factors Affecting Moral Development 97 Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom 98 Diversity in Personal and Social Development 100 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 100 Gender Differences 101 Socioeconomic Differences 103 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 103 The Big Picture 103 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: The Scarlet Letter 104 Chapter 4 Group Differences 109 Case Study: Why Jack Wasn¿t in School 109 Keeping Group Differences in Perspective 110 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 111 Navigating Different Cultures at Home and at School 112 Examples of Cultural and Ethnic Diversity 113 Creating a More Multicultural Classroom Environment 120 Gender Differences 124 Origins of Gender Differences 127 Socioeconomic Differences 132 Risk Factors Associated with Poverty 133 Fostering Resilience 136 Working with Homeless Students 137 Students at Risk 137 Characteristics of Students at Risk 138 Why Students Drop Out 139 Supporting Students at Risk 139 Remembering Within-Group Diversity 142 Group Differences and Special Needs 142 The Big Picture 142 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: The Active and the Passive 144 Chapter 5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs 147 Case Study: Tim 147 Keeping Individual Differences in Perspective 148 Intelligence 149 Theoretical Perspectives of Intelligence 149 Measuring Intelligence 154 Nature, Nurture, and Group Differences in Intelligence 159 Being ¿Smart¿ about Intelligence and IQ Scores 158 Cognitive Styles and Dispositions 159 Educating Students with Special Needs in General Education Classrooms 161 Public Law 94-142: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 161 Is Inclusion in the Best Interest of Students? 163 Is Classifying Students Helpful? 164 Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties 165 Learning Disabilities 165 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 169 Speech and Communication Disorders 170 General Recommendations 171 Students with Social or Behavioral Problems 172 Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 172 Autism Spectrum Disorders 174 General Recommendations 176 Students with General Delays in Cognitive and Social Functioning 177 Mental Retardation 177 Students with Physical and Sensory Challenges 178 Physical and Health Impairments 178 Visual Impairments 179 Hearing Loss 180 Severe and Multiple Disabilities 181 General Recommendations 182 Students with Advanced Cognitive Development 182 Giftedness 183 Considering Diversity When Identifying and Addressing Special Needs 185 The Big Picture 186 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Quiet Amy 187 PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION Chapter 6 Learning and Cognitive Processes 191 Case Study: Darren¿s Day at School 191 Looking at Learning from Different Perspectives 192 Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 193 Key Terms in Cognitive Psychology 196 A Model of Human Memory 198 The Nature of the Sensory Register 198 Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention 198 The Nature of Working (Short-Term) Memory 199 Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior Knowledge 201 The Nature of Long-Term Memory 202 Critiquing the Three-Component Model 202 Long-Term Memory Storage 203 How Declarative Knowledge Is Learned 204 How Procedural Knowledge Is Learned 214 Roles of Prior Knowledge in Long-Term Memory Storage 214 Using Mnemonics in the Absence of Relevant Prior Knowledge 216 Long-Term Memory Retrieval 217 Factors Affecting Retrieval 218 Why Learners Sometimes Forget 221 Giving Students Time to Process: Effects of Increasing Wait Time 222 Accommodating Diversity in Cognitive Processes 224 Facilitating Cognitive Processing in Students with Special Needs 226 The Big Picture 226 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: How Time Flies 227 Chapter 7 Knowledge Construction 231 Case Study: The New World 231 Constructive Processes in Learning and Memory 232 Construction in Storage 323 Construction in Retrieval 234 Knowledge Construction as a Social Process 235 Organizing Knowledge 237 Concepts 237 Schemas and Scripts 241 Theories 243 Worldviews 244 When Knowledge Construction Goes Awry: Origins and Effects of Misconceptions 245 Promoting Effective Knowledge Construction 247 Providing Opportunities for Experimentation 247 Presenting Experts¿ Perspectives 248 Emphasizing Conceptual Understanding 249 Promoting Classroom Dialogue 250 Assigning Authentic Activities 251 Scaffolding Theory Construction 253 Creating a Community of Learners 255 The Challenge of Conceptual Change 257 Promoting Conceptual Change 258 Diversity in Constructive Processes 260 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 261 The Big Picture 262 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Vision Unit 262 Chapter 8 Higher-Level Cognitive Processes 265 Case Study: Taking Over 265 Metacognition and Learning Strategies 266 Effective Learning Strategies 268 Factors Affecting Strategy Use 274 Transfer 278 Factors Affecting Transfer 279 Problem Solving 283 Problem-Solving Strategies: Algorithms and Heuristics 285 Cognitive Factors Affecting Problem Solving 287 Using Computer Technology to Promote Problem Solving 290 Creativity 292 Fostering Creativity 293 Critical Thinking 295 Fostering Critical Thinking 297 Diversity in Higher-Level Cognitive Processes 297 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 298 The Big Picture 300 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Interview with Emily 301 Chapter 9 Behaviorist Views of Learning 305 Case Study: The Attention Getter 305 Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism 306 Classical Conditioning 308 Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses 309 Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning 311 Operant Conditioning 311 Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning 312 Reinforcement in the Classroom 313 Using Reinforcement Effectively 318 Shaping New Behaviors 322 Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses 323 Reducing and Eliminating Undesirable Behaviors 326 Extinction 326 Cueing Inappropriate Behaviors 326 Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors 327 Punishment 328 Addressing Especially Difficult Classroom Behaviors 332 Applied Behavior Analysis 332 Functional Analysis and Positive Behavioral Support 334 Diversity in Student Behaviors and Reactions to Consequences 336 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 336 Strengths and Potential Limitations of Behavioral Approaches 336 The Big Picture 338 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Hostile Helen 339 Chapter 10 Social Cognitive Views of Learning 343 Case Study: Parlez-Vous Français? 343 Basic Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory 344 The Social Cognitive View of Reinforcement and Punishment 346 Modeling 349 Behaviors That Can Be Learned Through Modeling 349 How Modeling Affects Behavior 351 Characteristics of Effective Models 352 Helping Students Learn from Models 353 Self-Efficacy 356 How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition 356 Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy 358 Teacher Self-Efficacy 361 Self-Regulation 362 Self-Regulated Behavior 364 Self-Regulated Learning 368 Self-Regulated Problem Solving 371 Revisiting Reciprocal Causation 373 Diversity from a Social Cognitive Perspective 375 Using Diverse Models to Promote Success and Self-Efficacy 375 Promoting Self-Regulation in Students at Risk 376 Supporting Students with Special Needs 377 The Big Picture 377 Comparing the Three Perspectives of Learning 378 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Teacher¿s Lament 379 Chapter 11 Motivation and Affect 383 Case Study: Quick Draw 383 The Nature of Motivation 384 How Motivation Affects Learning and Behavior 384 Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation 385 Theoretical Perspectives of Motivation 386 Basic Human Needs 386 Arousal 386 Maslow¿s Hierarchy of Needs 388 Competence and Self-Worth 389 Self-Determination 391 Relatedness 395 Affect and Its Effects 398 How Affect Is Related to Learning and Cognition 398 Anxiety in the Classroom 400 Diversity in Motivation and Affect 406 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 407 Gender Differences 408 Socioeconomic Differences 408 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 408 The Big Picture 409 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: When ¿Perfect¿ Isn¿t Good Enough 411 Chapter 12 Cognitive Factors in Motivation 415 Case Study: Passing Algebra 415 The Interplay of Cognition and Motivation 416 Interest 417 Situational Versus Personal Interest 418 Promoting Interest in Classroom Subject Matter 419 Expectancies and Values 420 Internalizing the Values of Others 421 Fostering Expectancies and Values in the Classroom 421 Goals 422 Achievement Goals 422 Work-Avoidance Goals 426 Social Goals 427 Career Goals 427 Coordinating Multiple Goals 428 Attributions 430 How Attributions Influence Affect, Cognition, and Behavior 432 Developmental Trends in Attributions 433 Factors Influencing the Development of Attributions 434 Mastery Orientation Versus Learned Helplessness 436 Teacher Expectations and Attributions 437 How Teacher Expectations and Attributions Affect Students¿ Achievement 438 Forming Productive Expectations and Attributions for Student Performance 439 Diversity in the Cognitive Aspects of Motivation 442 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 442 Gender Differences 443 Socioeconomic Differences 444 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 446 The Big Picture 446 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Writer¿s Block 447 PART III CLASSROOM STRATEGIES Chapter 13 Instructional Strategies 451 Case Study: Oregon Trail 451 Overview of Instructional Strategies 453 Planning for Instruction 454 Identifying the Goals of Instruction 454 Conducting a Task Analysis 457 Developing a Lesson Plan 460 Expository Approaches 461 Lectures and Textbooks 461 Mastery Learning 462 Direct Instruction 465 Computer-Based Instruction 466 Online Research 467 Hands-On and Practice Activities 468 Discovery Learning 468 In-Class Activities 470 Computer Simulations and Applications 472 Homework 473 Interactive and Collaborative Approaches 474 Teacher Questions 475 Class Discussions 476 Reciprocal Teaching 478 Cooperative Learning 480 Peer Tutoring 485 Technology-Based Collaborative Learning 488 Taking Student Diversity into Account 490 Considering Group Differences 490 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 491 The Big Picture 493 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Cooperative Learning Project 493 Chapter 14 Creating a Productive Learning Environment 499 Case Study: A Contagious Situation 499 Creating a Setting Conducive to Learning 500 Arranging the Classroom 501 Establishing and Maintaining Productive Teacher-Student Relationships 502 Creating an Effective Psychological Climate 504 Setting Limits 507 Planning Activities That Keep Students on Task 510 Monitoring What Students Are Doing 513 Modifying Instructional Strategies 513 Taking Individual and Developmental Differences into Account 514 Dealing with Misbehaviors 515 Ignoring Behavior 515 Cueing a Student 517 Discussing a Problem Privately with a Student 518 Teaching Self-Regulation Strategies 519 Conferring with Parents 521 Conducting a Planned, Systematic Intervention 521 Addressing Aggression and Violence at School 523 A Three-Level Approach 524 Gang-Related Problems 525 Taking Student Diversity into Account 527 Creating a Supportive Climate 527 Defining and Responding to Misbehaviors 528 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 529 Coordinating Efforts with Others 529 Working with Other Faculty Members 529 Working with the Community at Large 531 Working with Parents 531 The Big Picture 539 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: The Good Buddy 540 Chapter 15 Classroom Assessment Strategies 543 Case Study: The Math Test 543 Assessments as Tools 544 The Various Forms of Educational Assessment 545 Using Assessment for Different Purposes 546 Promoting Learning 547 Guiding Instructional Decision Making 548 Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems 549 Promoting Self-Regulation 549 Determining What Students Have Learned 549 Important Qualities of Good Assessment 550 Reliability 550 Standardization 553 Validity 554 Practicality 558 Informal Assessment 558 RSVP Characteristics of Informal Assessment 560 Paper-Pencil Assessment 561 Constructing the Assessment Instrument 562 Administering the Assessment 569 Scoring Students¿ Responses 570 RSVP Characteristics of Paper-Pencil Assessment 572 Performance Assessment 573 Choosing Appropriate Performance Tasks 573 Planning and Administering the Assessment 575 Scoring Students¿ Responses 576 RSVP Characteristics of Performance Assessment 577 Including Students in the Assessment Process 580 Encouraging Risk Taking 583 Evaluating an Assessment Tool Through Item Analysis 583 Taking Student Diversity into Account in Classroom Assessments 584 Test Anxiety 585 Testwiseness 585 Accommodating Group Differences 586 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 588 The Big Picture 588 General Guidelines for Classroom Assessment 589 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Pick and Choose 589 Chapter 16 Summarizing Student Achievement 593 Case Study: B in History 593 Revisiting Self-Regulation and the RSVP Characteristics 594 Summarizing the Results of a Single Assessment 594 Raw Scores 595 Criterion-Referenced Scores 595 Norm-Referenced Scores 596 Using Criterion-Referenced Versus Norm-Referenced Scores in the Classroom 599 Determining Final Class Grades 600 Considering Improvement, Effort, and Extra Credit 602 Choosing Criterion-Referenced or Norm-Referenced Grades 603 Including Students in the Grading Process 604 Using Portfolios 605 Standardized Tests 607 Types of Standardized Tests 608 Technology and Assessment 609 Guidelines for Choosing and Using Standardized Tests 610 Interpreting Standardized Test Scores 613 High-Stakes Testing and Accountability 614 The U.S. No Child Left Behind Act 615 Problems with High-Stakes Testing 616 Potential Solutions to the Problems 617 Taking Student Diversity into Account 618 Cultural Bias 619 Language Differences 620 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 620 Confidentiality and Communication About Assessment Results 621 Communicating Assessment Results to Students and Parents 623 The Big Picture 625 Practice for Your Licensure Exam: Can Johnny Read? 626 Appendix A Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients A-1 Appendix B Answers to ¿Practice for Your Licensure Exam¿ Exercises B-1 Appendix C Matching Book and Ancillary Content to the Praxis® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests C-1 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index N-1 Subject Index S-1 SPECIAL TOPICS Child and Adolescent Development Case Study: Economic Activities 21 Basic Principles of Human Development 23 Role of the Brain in Learning and Development 25 Piaget¿s Theory of Cognitive Development 28 Piaget¿s Basic Assumptions 29 Piaget¿s Stages of Cognitive Development 31 Table 2.1: Compare/Contrast: Preoperational Versus Concrete Operational Thought 33 Table 2.2: Compare/Contrast: Concrete Operational Versus Formal Operational Thought 34 Current Perspectives on Piaget¿s Theory 36 Into the Classroom: Applying Piaget¿s Theory 39 Vygotsky¿s Theory of Cognitive Development 39 Vygotsky¿s Basic Assumptions 39 Current Perspectives on Vygotsky¿s Theory 43 Into the Classroom: Applying Vygotsky¿s Theory 43 Linguistic Development 49 Theoretical Issues Regarding Language Development 49 Trends in Language Development 49 Table 2.3: Developmental Trends: Examples of Linguistic Characteristics and Abilities at Different Grade Levels 51 Learning a Second Language 54 Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development 55 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 57 Table 2.4: Students in Inclusive Settings: Cognitive and Linguistic Development in Students with Special Educational Needs 58 The Big Picture 58 Accommodating Students¿ Diverse Temperaments 65 Parent¿s Influences 66 Cultural Expectations and Socialization 68 Development of a Sense of Self 69 Factors Influencing Sense of Self 70 Developmental Changes in Sense of Self 72 Erikson¿s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development 73 Table 3.1: Developmental Trends: Sense of Self at Different Grade Levels 77 Roles of Peers in Children¿s Development 77 Characteristics of Peer Relationships 79 Social Cognition 83 Table 3.2: Developmental Trends: Perspective Taking and Theory of Mind at Different Grade Levels 84 Fostering Social Skills 89 Promoting Social Interaction Among Diverse Groups 90 Moral and Prosocial Development 92 Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior 92 Table 3.4: Developmental Trends: Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior at Different Grade Levels 93 Table 3.4: Compare/Contrast: Kohlberg¿s Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Reasoning 96 Factors Affecting Moral Development 97 Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom 98 Into the Classroom: Promoting Moral and Prosocial Development 99 Diversity in Personal and Social Development 100 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 100 Gender Differences 101 Socioeconomic Differences 103 Table 3.6: Students in Inclusive Settings: Personal and Social Development in Students with Special Educational Needs 102 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 103 The Big Picture 103 Case Study: The Scarlet Letter 104 Origins of Gender Differences 127 Table 4.1: Developmental Trends: Gender-Related Characteristics at Different Grade Levels 128 Table 5.1: Developmental Trends: Intelligence and Its Measurement at Different Grade Levels 156 Table 7.1: Developmental Trends: Common Misunderstandings at Different Grade Levels 246 Table 8.1: Developmental Trends: Metacognition at Different Grade Levels 268 Table 9.2: Developmental Trends: Effective Reinforcers at Different Grade Levels 316 Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy 359 Table 10.2: Developmental Trends: Self-Regulation at Different Grade Levels 363 Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation 385 Relatedness 395 Making the Transition from Elementary School to Middle School or High School: A Multiple Whammy 402 Table 11.2: Developmental Trends: Affect at Different Grade Levels 403 Into the Classroom: Easing the Transition to Middle and Secondary School 405 Expectancies and Values 420 Situational Versus Personal Interest 418 Internalizing the Values of Others 421 Developmental Trends in Achievement Goals 425 Developmental Trends in Attributions 433 Factors Influencing the Development of Attributions 434 Table 12.2: Developmental Trends: Motivation at Different Grade Levels 435 Mastery Orientation Versus Learned Helplessness 436 Table 13.1: Developmental Trends: Examples of Indiana¿s State Standards for Reading Comprehension at Different Grade Levels 456 Taking Student Diversity into Account 490 Taking Individual and Developmental Differences into Account 514 Table 14.1: Developmental Trends: Effective Classroom Management at Different Grade Levels 516 Table 15.1: Developmental Trends: Matching Assessment Tasks to the Indiana State Standards for Reading Comprehension at Different Grade Levels 555 Guidelines for Choosing and Using Standardized Tests 610 Table 16.3: Developmental Trends: Characteristics Affecting Standardized Test Performance at Different Grade Levels 612 Classroom Management and Teacher-Student Relationships Case Study: Hidden Treasure 63 Aggression 87 Fostering Social Skills 89 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Facilitating Productive Peer Relationships 89 Promoting Social Interaction Among Diverse Groups 90 Moral and Prosocial Development 98 Case Study: Why Jack Wasn¿t in School 109 Keeping Group Differences in Perspective 110 Creating a Multicultural Classroom 120 Fostering Resilience 136 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Encouraging and Supporting Students at Risk 140 General Recommendations for Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties 171 Students with Social or Behavioral Problems 172 Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 172 Autism 174 General Recommendations for Students with Social or Behavioral Problems 176 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior in Students with Social or Behavioral Problems 176 Creating a Community of Learners 255 Case Study: The Attention Getter 305 Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses 309 Reinforcement in the Classroom 313 Table 9.2: Developmental Trends: Effective Reinforcers at Different Grade Levels 316 Using Reinforcement Effectively 318 Shaping New Behaviors 322 Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses 323 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Encouraging Productive Behaviors 325 Reducing and Eliminating Undesirable Behaviors 326 Extinction 326 Cuing Inappropriate Behaviors 326 Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors 327 Punishment 328 Addressing Especially Difficult Classroom Behaviors 332 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Decreasing and Eliminating Undesirable Behaviors 333 Applied Behavior Analysis 332 Functional Analysis and Positive Behavioral Support 334 Diversity in Student Behaviors and Reactions to Consequences 336 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 336 Strengths and Potential Limitations of Behavioral Approaches 336 Table 9.4: Students in Inclusive Settings: Encouraging Appropriate Behaviors in Students with Special Educational Needs 337 The Big Picture 338 Case Study: Hostile Helen 339 Nonoccurrence of Expected Consequences 348 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Administering Consequences from a Social Cognitive Perspective 349 Self-Regulated Behavior 364 Self-Regulated Problem Solving 371 Relatedness 395 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Addressing Students¿ Social Needs 397 Keeping Students¿ Anxiety at a Facilitative Level 404 Table 11.3: Students in Inclusive Settings: Enhancing Motivation in Students with Special Educational Needs 410 Case Study: When ¿Perfect¿ Isn¿t Good Enough 411 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Promoting Intrinsic Motivation 429 Teacher Expectations and Attributions 437 How Teacher Expectations and Attributions Affect Student Achievement and Performance 438 Forming Productive Expectations and Attributions for Student Performance 439 Case Study: Writers Block 447 Class Discussions 476 Cooperative Learning 480 Case Study: Cooperative Learning Project 493 Case Study: A Contagious Situation 499 Creating an Environment Conducive to Learning 500 Arranging the Classroom 501 Establishing and Maintaining Productive Teacher-Student Relationships 502 Creating an Effective Psychological Climate 504 Setting Limits 507 Planning Activities That Keep Students on Task 510 Monitoring What Students Are Doing 513 Modifying Instructional Strategies 513 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Creating Conditions in Which Students Can Effectively Learn 514 Taking Individual and Developmental Differences into Account 514 Dealing with Misbehaviors 515 Ignoring Behavior 515 Table 14.1: Developmental Trends: Effective Classroom Management at Different Grade Levels 516 Cuing a Student 517 Discussing a Problem Privately with a Student 518 Teaching Self-Regulation Strategies 519 Conferring with Parents 521 Addressing Aggression and Violence in Schools 523 Table 14.2: Principles/Assumptions: Strategies for Dealing with Student Misbehavior 523 Taking Student Diversity into Account 527 Creating a Supportive Climate 527 Defining and Responding to Misbehaviors 528 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 529 Coordinating Efforts with Others 529 Working with Other Faculty Members 529 Table 14.3: Students in Inclusive Settings: Maintaining a Productive Classroom Environment for Students with Special Educational Needs 530 Working with the Community at Large 531 Working with Parents 531 Into the Classroom: Working Effectively with Parents 539 The Big Picture 539 Case Study: The Good Buddy 540 Case Study: The Math Test 543 Paper-Pencil Assessment 561 Planning and Administering the [Performance] Assessment 575 Table 15.4: Compare/Contrast: Keeping Students¿ Anxiety at a Facilitative Level During Classroom Assessments 586 Cultural and Ethnic Differences Learning a Second Language 54 Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development 55 Table 3.1: Compare/Contrast: Common Parenting Styles 67 Cultural Expectations and Socialization 68 Promoting Social Interaction Among Diverse Groups 90 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 100 Diversity in Personal and Social Development 100 Table 3.6: Students in Inclusive Settings: Personal and Social Development in Students with Special Educational Needs 102 Case Study: Why Jack Wasn¿t in School 109 Keeping Group Differences in Perspective 110 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 111 Navigating Different Cultures at Home and at School 112 Examples of Cultural and Ethnic Diversity 113 Creating a More Multicultural Classroom Environment 120 Group Differences and Special Needs 142 The Big Picture 142 Table 4.2: Students in Inclusive Settings: Considering Group Differences in Students with Special Education Needs 143 Case Study: The Active and the Passive 144 Considering Diversity When Identifying and Addressing Special Needs 185 Accommodating Diversity in Cognitive Process 224 Schemas and Scripts 241 Diversity in Constructive Processes 260 Considering Diversity in Higher-Level Cognitive Processes 297 Diversity in Student Behaviors and Reactions to Consequences 336 Using Diverse Models to Promote Success and Self-Efficacy 375 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 407 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 442 Considering Group Differences 490 Creating a Supportive Climate 527 Defining and Responding to Misbehaviors 528 Getting Parents Involved in School Activities 534 Considering Group Differences When Working With Parents 539 Test Anxiety 584 Taking Student Diversity into Account in Classroom Assessment 584 Testwiseness 585 Table 15.6: Students in Inclusive Settings: Using Classroom Assessments with Students Who Have Special Educational Needs 587 Accommodating Group Differences 586 Cultural Bias 619 Language Differences 620 Low Socioeconomic Status and Students at Risk Case Study: Hidden Treasure 63 Larger Social Groups 79 Aggression 87 Fostering Social Skills 89 Socioeconomic Differences 103 Risk Factors Associated with Poverty 133 Fostering Resilience 136 Working with Homeless Students 137 Students at Risk 137 Characteristics of Students at Risk 138 Why Students Drop Out 139 Supporting Students at Risk 139 Creating a Productive Classroom Environment: Encouraging and Supporting Students at Risk 140 Table 4.2: Students in Inclusive Settings: Considering Group Differences in Students with Special Educational Needs 143 Learning Disabilities 165 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 169 General Recommendations for Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties 171 Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 172 Autism Spectrum Disorders 174 Considering Diversity When Identifying and Addressing Special Needs 185 Case Study: The Attention Getter 305 Addressing Especially Difficult Classroom Behaviors 332 Applied Behavior Analysis 332 Functional Analysis and Positive Behavioral Support 334 Case Study: Hostile Helen 339 Reciprocal Causation 373 Promoting Self-Regulation in Students at Risk 376 Socioeconomic Differences 408 Socioeconomic Differences 444 Addressing Aggression and Violence at School 523 Taking Student Diversity into Account 527 Creating a Supportive Climate 527 Working with Other Faculty Members 529 Encouraging Reluctant Parents 535 Discussing Problem Behaviors with Parents 536 Test Anxiety 584 Accommodating Group Differences 586
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Educational psychology.
Teaching.
Learning.
Classroom management.