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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ? 1.01 OVERVIEW OF DISABILITY LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 [A] Medical Models and Civil Rights Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 [B] Discrimination, Torts, Public Benefits, and Other Legal Topics . . 2 ? 1.02 OVERVIEW OF DISABILITY DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . 3 [A] Forms of Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 [B] Sources of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ? 1.03 OVERVIEW OF CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 [A] Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 [B] Due Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 [C] Eighth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Chapter 2 STATUTORY COVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 ? 2.01 DEFINITIONS OF DISABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 [A] Federal Statutory Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 [B] Alternative Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 [C] Role of Mitigating Measures: The Sutton Trilogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 [D] Contagious Diseases and Transitory Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 [E] Exclusion for Current Users of Illegal Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 [F] Other Exclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 ? 2.02 ACTUALLY IMPAIRED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 [A] Physical or Mental Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 [B] Substantially Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 [C] Major Life Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 [D] Major Life Activity of Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 ? 2.03 RECORD OF AN IMPAIRMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 ? 2.04 REGARDED AS HAVING AN IMPAIRMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 ? 2.05 QUALIFIED INDIVIDUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 ? 2.06 ENTITIES AND INDIVIDUALS BOUND BY THE DISABILITY DISCRIMINATION LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 [A] ADA Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 [B] Coverage of Section 504 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 [C] Coverage of Other Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Chapter 3 EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 ? 3.01 OVERVIEW OF EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . 45 [A] Relevant Statutory Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 [B] Covered Entities Under the ADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 vii 3217FM 3/30/07 11:59 AM Page vii ? 3.02 QUALIFIED INDIVIDUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 [A] Relation of ?Qualified Individual? to ?Reasonable Accommodation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 [B] Essential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 [C] Judicial Estoppel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 ? 3.03 DISPARATE TREATMENT AND LIMITING, SEGREGATING, AND CLASSIFYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 ? 3.04 STANDARDS, CRITERIA, AND METHODS OF OPERATION WITH DISPARATE IMPACTS; TESTS AND SELECTION CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 ? 3.05 FAILING TO PROVIDE REASONABLE ACCOMMODATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 [A] Burdens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 [B] Reasonable Accommodation and Undue Hardship Standards . . . 67 [C] Job Restructuring and Reassignment to a Vacant Position . . . . . 69 [D] Interactive Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 [E] Alcoholism and Use of Illegal Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 [F] Accommodations for Persons Regarded as Disabled . . . . . . . . . . . 75 ? 3.06 MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS AND INQUIRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 [A] Pre-Employment Inquiries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 [B] Medical Examinations After Conditional Offer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 [C] Inquiries and Examinations of Current Employees . . . . . . . . . . . 80 [D] Drug Testing and Related Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 ? 3.07 DISCRIMINATION BY CONTRACTUAL ARRANGEMENT . . . 82 ? 3.08 ASSOCIATIONAL DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 ? 3.09 ADDITIONAL DEFENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 [A] Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 [B] Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 [C] Direct Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 [D] Mandatory Arbitration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 ? 3.10 REMEDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 [A] Compensatory and Punitive Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 [B] Backpay, Reinstatement, Injunctions, and Other Equitable Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 [C] Attorneys? Fees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Chapter 4 EDUCATIONAL DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 ? 4.01 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 [A] Overview of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act . . . . 99 [B] Eligibility and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 [C] Appropriate Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 [D] Least Restrictive Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 [E] Procedures and Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 [F] Student Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 3217FM 3/30/07 11:59 AM Page viii ? 4.02 POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 [A] Overview of Higher Education Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 [B] Qualifications and Reasonable Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 [C] Academic Deference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 [D] Specific Issues Regarding Learning Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 [E] Courses and Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Chapter 5 PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 ? 5.01 OVERVIEW OF PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 ? 5.02 DEFINING PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 ? 5.03 REASONABLE MODIFICATIONS AND AUXILIARY AIDS AND SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 [A] Reasonable Modifications and Fundamental Alteration . . . . . . . . 143 [B] Auxiliary Aids and Services and Undue Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 ? 5.04 ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS AND BARRIER REMOVAL . . . 148 ? 5.05 PLACES OF PUBLIC EXHIBITION OR ENTERTAINMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 ? 5.06 INSURANCE ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 ? 5.07 REMEDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Chapter 6 DISCRIMINATION IN GOVERNMENT SERVICES AND ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 ? 6.01 OVERVIEW OF DISCRIMINATION BY GOVERNMENTAL ENTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 ? 6.02 DISCRIMINATION BY FEDERAL AGENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 ? 6.03 STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: DISPARATE IMPACT DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 ? 6.04 STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: MODIFICATIONS OF POLICIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 ? 6.05 STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: INTEGRATED SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 ? 6.06 STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: SPECIFIC ISSUES AND GENERAL ACCESSIBILITY DUTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 [A] Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 [B] Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 [C] Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 [D] Prisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 [E] Public Benefits and Welfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 [F] Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 [G] Accessibility Requirements in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 ? 6.07 STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: REMEDIES . . . . . . . . . . 185 [A] Exhaustion Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 [B] Injunctive Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 3217FM 3/30/07 11:59 AM Page ix [C] Damages Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 [E] Eleventh Amendment Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Chapter 7 HOUSING, TRANSPORTATION, TELECOMMUNICATIONS, AND ADDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION TOPICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 ? 7.01 HOUSING DISCRIMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 [A] Overview of the FHAA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 [B] Facial Discrimination and Disparate Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 [C] Reasonable Accommodation and Disparate Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 [D] Defenses and Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 [E] Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 ? 7.02 TRANSPORTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 [A] Ground Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 [B] Air Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 ? 7.03 TELECOMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 [A] Telephone Relay Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 [B] Internet Sites and Other Means of Telecommunication . . . . . . . . 217 ? 7.04 ADDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 [A] Retaliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 [B] Disability Harassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 [C] International and Comparative Law Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 x TABLE OF CONTENTS 3217FM 3/30/07 11:59 AM Page x
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
People with disabilities -- Legal status, laws, etc. -- United States.
Discrimination -- United States.