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Table of Contents Section 1 - Introduction to usability Chapter 1 - What is a user interface? Chapter 2 - What do we mean by HCI, usability and user interfaces? Chapter 3 - Defining usability and models of usability Section 2 - The process of usability engineering Chapter 4 - The process of usability engineering Section 3 - Defining and documenting the user's needs Chapter 5 - Understanding and documenting the UI that the user has in mind Chapter 6 - Large-scale example of analysis and specification of user context, tasks and characteristics Section 4 - Designing a user interface to match the user needs Chapter 7 - Designing the interaction and designing a solution Chapter 8 - Interaction styles and how they relate to project situations Chapter 9 - More guidelines, some standards and generally some more ideas to improve your design of interaction Section 5 - Revisiting the process Chapter 10 - Revisiting the process: Prototyping your interaction Chapter 11 - Usability assessment Section 6 - A little more about design Chapter 12 - Interaction design and evaluation example Chapter 13 - Specifying and analyzing your (quality) software design Section 7 - Context, constraints and responsibilities for user interface design Chapter 14 - The ¿H¿ in HCI Chapter 15 - Usability for everyone Chapter 1 ¿ What is a user interface? Motivation 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Common objects and what we can learn from them 1.3 How do users know what to do with an interface? 1.3.1 Perceptibility of salient cues from the interface 1.3.2 User models of devices What do you perceive that you can do with the user interface? What are the limitations of a user interface? What happens when we operate the interface? An example ¿ a jar lid 1.3.3 Designing aggravating interfaces 1.3.4 How do we know that our mental model fits the device? Conclusions Exercises Chapter 2 ¿ What do we mean by HCI, usability and user interfaces? Motivation 2.1 What do we mean by HCI? 2.2 What factors influence the success of a user interface? 2.3 Who is qualified to participate in HCI? 2.4 Why is there interest in usability and user interfaces now? 2.4.1 Changes in hardware environments 2.4.2 Changes in user characteristics 2.4.3 Changes in software environments and applications 2.4.4 More history of HCI 2.5 HCI grows within the computer science field 2.6 The context of HCI 2.7 The process of usability engineering 2.8 Why is usability engineering hard? 2.8.1 How do we guarantee usability? 2.9 Where are we going? Conclusions Exercises Chapter 3 ¿ Defining usability and models of usability Motivation 3.1 Introduction: What does usability mean exactly? 3.2 Shackel¿s model of usability 3.3 Nielsen¿s model of usability 3.4 Eason¿s model of usability 3.4.1 System (user interface) characteristics 3.4.2 Task characteristics 3.4.3 User characteristics 3.4.4 An example to illustrate the use of Eason¿s model 3.4.5 Is there any evidence to support the Eason model of usability? 3.5 A note about causality and usability models 3.6 Our model of usability 3.6.1 Situational variables ¿ Task Frequency Rigidness Situational constraints 3.6.2 Situational variables ¿ User User expertise User motivation 3.6.3 User interface (system) variables Ease of use, ease of learning and ease of relearning Task Match Flexibility Satisfaction 3.7 What do you do with a model of usability? 3.8 An example of applying our model 3.8.1 Assessing task characteristics Frequency Rigidness Situational Constraints 3.8.2 Assessing user characteristics User motivation User expertise 3.8.3 Assessing user interface characteristics Ease of learning Ease of use Ease of relearning Task match Flexibility Satisfaction 3.8.4 Now what? 3.9 Conclusions about measurements 3.10 What parts of the system have to be usable? 3.11 Usability characteristics and POET Conclusions Exercises Chapter 4 ¿ The process of usability engineering Motivation 4.1 Building a UI is part of software development and software development is hard 4.2 UI development adds special challenges to SW development 4.3 Process of development 4.4 Software life cycle 4.4.1 Systems engineering and analysis 4.4.2 Software requirements analysis and specification 4.4.3 Software design 4.4.4 Coding 4.4.5 Testing 4.4.6 Maintenance 4.4.7 Guessing game 4.4.8 Issues for the Waterfall Model 4.4.9 Some problems with the Waterfall Model 4.5 Building a model that includes usability engineering 4.5.1 What activities are necessary for usability engineering? 4.6 Methodologies, methods, models, notations and mechanics 4.6.1 Methodologies 4.6.2 Models 4.6.3 Notation 4.6.4 Mechanics 4.7 The development team 4.7.1 Team structure 4.8 How involved are the users? Conclusions Exercises Chapter 5 ¿ Understanding and documenting the UI that the user has in mind Motivation 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Context setting and context specification 5.3 Understanding the user¿s problem by understanding their tasks 5.3.1 Strategy 1 - Use Case analysis 5.3.2 Strategy 2 - Analysis using scenarios 5.3.3 Strategy 3 - Hierarchical task analysis 5.3.4 Which approach to use? 5.3.5 Our analysis and specification strategy - how to do it 5.3.6 Task analysis and specification process example 5.3.7 Completing the specification 5.3.8 Task analysis ¿Do's and Don'ts¿ 5.3.9 Task analysis challenges 5.3.10 Task analysis and specification errors 5.3.11 Tasks versus implementation 5.3.12 Task analysis and specification summary 5.3.13 Additional or missing information relevant to the specification 5.3.14 Eliciting task information from users 5.4 Developing user profiles 5.4.1 How user characteristics may impact your final system 5.4.2 Where to start in building user profiles 5.4.3 Structure of a user profile document 5.5 Other specification documents and information Conclusions Exercises Chapter 6 ¿ Large-scale example of analysis and specification of user context, tasks and characteristics Motivation 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Steps for our analysis and specification 6.2 Task analysis and specification for the Audio Catalog 6.2.1 Audio Catalog tasks narrative description 6.2.2 Typical scenarios for the Audio Catalog Scenario One Informal Use Case One Scenario Two Informal Use Case Two Scenario Three Informal Use Case Three Scenario Four Informal Use Case Four Scenario Five Informal Use Case Five Scenario Six Informal Use Case Six Scenario Seven Informal Use Case Seven Scenario Eight Informal Use Case Eight 6.2.3 Identifying primary entities - Who and what are the important players and ¿things¿? 6.2.4 Use Cases and scenarios 6.2.5 More information from users 6.3 Analyzing the user tasks Songs CDs Shopping Lists Reports Queries Labels Categories Catalog Description of Task 3: Manage CDs Description of Task 3.1: Add a New CD to Catalog Description of Task 3.2.2: Add Attributes to an Existing CD Description of Task 3.2.4.3: Paste, Existing CD 6.4 User profiles 6.5 Context setting 6.6 Some notes about groups and tools Conclusions Exercises Chapter 7¿ Designing the interaction and a solution Motivation 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Design of interaction 7.3 Overview - interaction styles 7.4 Major categories of interaction styles - quick descriptions 7.4.1 Manipulation of visual elements 7.4.2 Conversational interactions 7.4.3 Manipulable and combination interaction styles 7.5 General design guidelines 7.5.1 Guideline 1 - Facilitate the development and use of workable mental models 7.5.2 Guideline 2 - Use meaningful analogies and metaphors 7.5.3 Guideline 3 - Avoid anthropomorphism 7.5.4 Guideline 4 - Minimize modal interactions 7.5.5 Guideline 5 - Reduce the cognitive workload of the user 7.5.6 Guideline 6 - Let the user be in charge 7.5.7 Conclusions about general guidelines 7.6 Beyond guidelines - Relating situational variables to interaction design decisions 7.6.1 Relating task characteristics to interaction design decisions Frequently performed tasks Infrequently performed tasks Rigid tasks Non-rigid tasks Situational Constraints 7.6.2 Relating user characteristics to interaction design decisions Novice users Occasional users Expert users Conclusions Exercises Chapter 8 ¿ Interaction styles and how they relate to project situations Motivation 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Getting started 8.3 Manipulation of visual elements interaction styles 8.3.1 Menus or menu-based interactions Advantages and disadvantages of menus Design decisions for menus Menu architecture Actual content and layout of menus Semantic (meaning-based) organization of the menu options Navigational structure of menus Physical access to menus Support for expert users Menu types Keyboard-based menus Pull-down menus Layered context-dependent (Lotus-style) menus Pop-up menus Picture menus Pie menus Check boxes (multiple selections) Selecting a menu type 8.3.2 Windowed interactions Design decisions for windowed interactions 8.3.3 Form fill-in interactions Design decisions for form fill-in interactions Navigation across multiple forms Distinguishing between data and commands Organization, labeling and contents of fields User feedback and management of errors 8.3.4 Graphical direct manipulation Direct manipulation examples Direct manipulation design decisions and guidelines Providing feedback Choice of graphical representation and ¿physics¿ Support for expert users Role of text Direct manipulation open questions 8.4 Conversational interactions: Verbal, symbol exchange 8.4.1 Command-line interactions Command-line language design decisions 8.4.2 Natural language and speech-based processing interfaces 8.4.3 Question-and-answer interactions 8.5 Manipulable and combination interactions 8.5.1 Haptic interactions 8.5.2 Multimodal and multimedia interactions 8.5.3 Virtual reality interactions Design decisions for virtual reality interactions 8.5.4 Video and electronic game interactions 8.5.5 Mobile and handheld computer interactions 8.6 A reminder about hardware 8.7 To web or not to web? Conclusions Exercises Chapter 9 ¿ More guidelines, some standards and generally some more ideas to improve your design of interaction Motivation 9.1 Introduction 9.2 What are guidelines? 9.3 Commercial platform guidelines 9.4 Project guidelines 9.5 External standards 9.6 Conclusions about guidelines and standards 9.7 Guidelines for visual design 9.7.1 Color 9.7.2 Organizing interface elements 9.7.3 Fonts 9.7.4 Labels 9.7.5 Drawing attention to the wrong information 9.7.6 Using symbols and visual metaphors 9.7.7 Use of spacing, groupings and balance within a window, field or dialogue Conclusions Exercises Chapter 10 ¿ Revisiting the process: Prototyping your interaction Motivation 10.1 Why discuss prototyping here? 10.2 Introduction to prototyping and iterative design 10.3 Steps for prototyping - the prototyping lifecycle 10.4 Advantages to prototyping 10.5 How extensive or complete should the prototype be? 10.6 Styles of prototypes 10.6.1 Low-fidelity prototypes Scenario and storyboard prototypes Demonstration prototypes 10.6.2 High-fidelity prototypes Version 0 prototypes 10.6.3 Horizontal and vertical prototypes 10.6.4 ¿Wizard of Oz¿ prototypes 10.7 Conclusions about prototypes and prototyping 10.8 Tools for interface construction and Version 0 prototypes 10.8.1 Event-driven programming languages 10.8.2 Specific user interface development tools 10.8.3 Toolkits 10.8.4 UIMS and dialog management Conclusions Exercises Chapter 11 ¿ Usability assessment Motivation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Evaluation is a process 11.2.1 What steps are part of the evaluation process? 11.2.2 When should usability assessment be performed during development? 11.2.3 What kind of evaluation: Analytic evaluation, evaluation by experts or evaluation by users? 11.3 Getting started: The process 11.3.1 What are the steps in the process? Understand the evaluation Design the evaluation at a high level Design the evaluation at a low level: Operationalize variables and benchmark tasks Design the evaluation at a low level: To measure or not to measure - opinions or performance Design the evaluation at a low level: Where to evaluate - laboratory, controlled setting or real site? Design the evaluation at a low level: Developing a procedure Design the evaluation at a low level: Developing the structure of experiments Evaluate: pilot test or the real thing 11.4 When to evaluate? 11.4.1 Formative evaluation 11.4.2 Summative evaluation 11.4.3 Connection between the type and the time of the evaluation 11.5 What kind of evaluation? 11.5.1 Analytic evaluation 11.5.2 Evaluation by experts Evaluation by experts: heuristic evaluation Evaluation by experts: cognitive walkthrough 11.5.3 Evaluation by users: user testing 11.5.4 Performance measurements 11.5.5 Subjective measurements 11.5.6 Observational measurements 11.5.7 Users as informed participants Conclusions Exercises Chapter 12 ¿ Interaction design and evaluation example Motivation 12.1 Introduction Design of interaction: High-level design Design of interaction: Low-level design 12.2 Design of interaction 12.2.1 Step 1. Review the values of the situational variables for your project. What are the user characteristics for your project? What are the characteristics of the tasks in your project? What are the user characteristics for the Audio Catalog? What are the characteristics of the tasks in the Audio Catalog? 12.2.2 Step 2. Choose an interaction style or styles. 12.2.3 Step 3. Use general guidelines to eliminate unworkable ideas and expand workable ideas. 12.2.4 Step 4. Identify and make specific decisions for your interaction style. Design decisions for menus 12.2.5 Step 5. Identify a standard ¿look¿ for your screens. 12.2.6 Step 6. Design the ¿feel¿ of the interactions. 12.2.7 Step 7. Review general and visual guidelines. Re-design and re-evaluate. 12.3 Low-level design of interaction 12.3.1 Step 1. Map your task structure onto your design of interaction. 12.3.2 Step 2. Design individual interactions to support the tasks identified in the task analysis. 12.3.3 Step 3. Check the design of individual screens. 12.4 Re-evaluate your design decisions 12.5 Analyzing the design 12.6 Another evaluation of our design Conclusions Exercises Chapter 13 ¿ Specifying and analyzing your (quality) software design Motivation 13.1 Introduction 13.2 From interaction design to software development 13.3 Software requirements specification to support interaction 13.3.1 Specification of interface: A hard software engineering problem 13.3.2 Specifying the requirements for your interface software: What information should be included? 13.3.3 Look of interface and composition interface objects 13.3.4 Using UML models to specify ¿look¿ and ¿feel¿ 13.3.5 Static structure of the interface: Class Diagrams 13.3.6. Relationships between classes Associations 13.3.7 Showing behavior 13.3.8 Activity Diagram Activity modeling and diagrams 13.3.9 State Diagram 13.3.10 Conclusions: Unified Software Engineering Methodology, UML and the specification of interfaces 13.4 Design of interface: A software design problem 13.4.1 What is designed during design of interface? 13.4.2 Software design quality Functional independence Coupling Cohesion Class coupling and cohesion Encapsulation Software reuse 13.4.3 Object-oriented paradigm and design quality 13.4.4 Object-oriented design and user interface design 13.5 A brief note about software testing 13.6 Other notations to support the specification and construction of interface software 13.7 Challenges for notations and methodologies Conclusions Exercises Chapter 14 ¿ The ¿H¿ in HCI Motivation 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The person as an information processor 14.3 Human input/output (I/O) 14.3.1 Attention Designer Lessons 14.3.2 Insights about human input/output Designer Lessons 14.3.3 Text and HCI Designer Lessons 14.3.4 Hearing and audition Designer Lessons 14.3.5 Touch Designer Lessons 14.3.6 What about smell and taste? 14.3.7 What about output? Fitts¿ Law 14.4 Memory and storage 14.4.1 Sensory memory 14.4.2 Short-term memory (STM) Chunking and the design of user interfaces Designer Lessons 14.4.3 Working memory (WM) Designer Lessons 14.4.4 Long-term memory (LTM) Designer Lessons Types of knowledge in LTM Representation of knowledge Designer Lessons Skill acquisition 14.5 Cognitive and thinking processes 14.5.1 What is thinking? 14.5.2 Problem solving Designer Lessons More about problem solving and user interfaces Designer Lessons 14.5.3 Decision making 14.5.4 Reasoning Conclusions Exercises Chapter 15 ¿ Usability for everyone Motivation 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Universal access as a matter of law in the United States 15.3 Diversity of users 15.3.1 Usability for users with disabilities 15.3.2 Usability for the elderly 15.3.3 Usability for children 15.3.4 Usability and gender 15.4 Real strategies for universal usability 15.4.1 To work within the context of established infrastructure to promote universal usability. 15.4.2 To use good engineering practice. 15.4.3 To design for a diverse audience. 15.4.4 To use and accommodate a wide variety of technologies. 15.5 Universal usability and the marketplace 15.6 Why now? Conclusions A final thought Exercises Chapter 16 ¿ References
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
User interfaces (Computer systems).
Computer software -- Development.
System design.