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Contents List of Figures xi Preface xv Part 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 3 1. Content of the Book 4 2. Recent Developments in the Study of Poverty and Discrimination 9 3. Object of the Book 17 4. Why Do Policy Analysts Disagree? The Limits of Statistical Arguments 20 5. Why Do Policy Analysts Disagree? The Role of Values 24 6. A Case Study: Retention in Grade 26 7. Concluding Remarks 33 8. Further Reading 35 9. Questions for Discussion 36 10. Appendix: A Quick Guide to Statistics 37 Notes 53 Part 2. Poverty 61 iii iv Chapter 2. Who Is Poor? 63 1. Evidence on the Importance of Relative Income 72 2. How the Government Measures Poverty 73 3. Valuing nonmonetary income 77 4. Over What Time Period Should We Measure Poverty? 79 5. Other Problems with the Oc cial Measure 81 6. The National Academy of Sciences Report 82 7. Gathering the Data 83 8. Who Is Poor (Oc cial Measure)? 84 9. Extreme Poverty 86 10. Homelessness 87 11. Hunger and Food Insecurity 92 12. Alternative Measures 97 13. The Dynamics of Poverty 99 14. Why Does Poverty Last So Long for Some People? 103 15. Concluding Remarks 107 16. Further Reading 108 17. Questions for Discussion 110 Notes 113 Chapter 3. The Evolution of Poverty Policy 123 1. Federal Poverty Programs: 1970-2000 124 2. Incentives Under AFDC 127 3. Earned Income Tax Credit 132 4. Cash or In-Kind Transfers: Which Is Better 147 5. Concluding Remarks 153 v 6. Further Reading 154 7. Questions for Discussion 155 Notes 156 Chapter 4. Trends in Poverty 165 1. Trends Using the Oc cial Measure 165 2. Trends in Poverty Under Alternate Measures 168 3. Accounting for Trends 170 4. Concluding Remarks 186 5. Further Reading 187 6. Questions for Discussion 188 7. Appendix: Multivariate Analysis 190 Notes 194 Chapter 5. Labor Market Policies 219 1. Understanding Wage Inequality 220 2. Minimum Wage Laws 230 3. Living Wage Laws 236 4. Job training programs 239 5. Can They Reduce Poverty? 242 6. Evaluating the JTPA 244 7. Evaluation of Job Corps and Other Youth Programs 250 8. Training Programs and Tagging 257 9. Welfare to Work - Work First 258 10. Employer Based Subsidies 261 11. Concluding Remarks 266 12. Further Reading 266 vi 13. Questions for Discussion 268 14. Appendix: Adjusting for Nonparticipation in the Program 269 Notes 271 Chapter 6. Family Composition 289 1. Births to single mothers 290 2. Declining marriage 293 3. Changing Social Attitudes 300 4. The Role of Welfare 307 5. Features of Welfare 311 6. Teenage Childbearing 316 7. E$ects of Growing Up with a Single Parent 324 8. Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty 329 9. Policies Aimed at Infants and Toddlers 332 10. Pre-School Programs 338 11. Programs for School-Age Children 344 12. Medicaid and SCHIP 357 13. Concluding Remarks 360 14. Further Reading 363 15. Questions for Discussion 367 Notes 368 Chapter 7. Concentrated Poverty 397 1. Life in High-Poverty Neighborhoods 398 2. Do Neighborhoods Matter? 400 3. The Gautreaux Program1 403 4. Moving to Opportunity 405 vii 5. Public Housing 407 6. Gangs 409 7. Community Development 412 8. Concluding Remarks 416 9. Further Reading 418 10. Questions for Discussion 420 Notes 420 Chapter 8. Education and Education Reform 425 1. Education and Earnings 426 2. Testing 429 3. Decentralization and School Quality 443 4. Using Tests to Increase School and District Accountability 470 5. Concluding Remarks 474 6. Further Reading 477 7. Questions for Discussion 479 Notes 480 Chapter 9. Welfare Reform 491 1. The Case for Reform 492 2. The Welfare Reform Act of 1996 495 3. Assessing the E$ects of Welfare Reform 506 4. E$ect on Welfare Recipiency 507 5. Welfare Reform and Well-Being 510 6. Living Arrangements 515 7. E$ects on Children and Adolescents 516 8. Concluding Thoughts 517 viii 9. Further Reading 518 10. Questions for Discussion 519 Notes 520 Part 3. Discrimination 529 Chapter 10. Discrimination: Theory 531 1. What is Discrimination? 532 2. Theories of Discrimination: Prejudice 539 3. Prejudice in Imperfect Labor Markets 544 4. Transaction Costs Models 546 5. Statistical Discrimination 549 6. Self-Con.rming Expectations 553 7. Concluding Remarks 560 8. Questions for Discussion 561 9. Further Reading 562 Notes 563 Chapter 11. Race Discrimination in the Labor Market 569 1. Trends in Black-White Earnings Di$erentials 570 2. Explaining the Decline in the Wage Gap 573 3. Evidence on Current Discrimination 581 4. Testing for Discrimination: Legal Perspectives 602 5. Ac rmative Action in Employment 609 6. Ac rmative Action in Public Employment 613 7. Concluding Remarks 615 8. Questions for Discussion 617 ix 9. Further Reading 618 Notes 620 Chapter 12. Race Discrimination and Education 641 1. The Black-White Test Score Gap 641 2. Discrimination in Education 652 3. Ac rmative Action in Education 660 4. Concluding Remarks 665 5. Questions for Discussion 666 6. Further Reading 667 Notes 667 Chapter 13. Race Discrimination in Customer Markets and the Judicial System 677 1. Housing 678 2. Discrimination in Other Markets 695 3. Discrimination in the Justice System 702 4. Concluding Remarks 706 5. Questions for Discussion 707 6. Further Reading 707 Notes 708 Chapter 14. Sex Discrimination 717 1. Theory 717 2. Is There Discrimination Against Women in the Labor Market? 727 3. Discrimination, Marriage and Children 733 x 4. Sexual Orientation 736 5. Trends in the Female/Male Wage Ratio 740 6. Comparable Worth 746 7. Concluding Remarks 750 8. Questions for Discussion 753 9. Further Reading 754 Notes 756 Part 4. Conclusion 767 Chapter 15. An Agenda? 769 1. The Value and Limits of Research 769 2. The Value and Limits of a Strong Labor Market 772 3. Family and Early Childhood 776 4. Education 779 5. Addressing the Needs of High Poverty Neighborhoods 781 6. Race Discrimination and Inequality 782 7. Addressing Inequality 784 8. Health Care 785 9. Concluding Remarks 786 Notes 788
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Poverty -- United States.
Economic policy -- United States.
Social policy -- United States.
Public welfare -- United States.
Discimination -- United States.