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Contents Preface xix To the Student xxv Part I Effective Thinking, Writing, and Studying 1 1 Thinking and Writing 2 a. Use critical thinking to write a definition of a problem 4 b. Use creative thinking to generate information 5 c. Use creative thinking to write a list of tentative options 7 d. Use critical thinking to test tentative options 7 e. Use critical thinking to evaluate reliable options 8 2 Basics of Critical Thinking 10 a. Distinguish facts from opinions 10 b. Analyze inferences 11 c. Verify interpretations 13 d. Identify logical fallacies 15 e. Evaluate propaganda 20 3 Critical Thinking and Reasoning 21 a. Use reflective listening 22 b. Trace inductive process 23 c. Trace deductive process 25 4 Effective Studying 28 a. Make a plan 29 b. Use your study time efficiently 29 c. Use class time efficiently 30 d. Read carefully and critically 31 e. Prepare efficiently for tests 32 Part II The College Essay 35 5 Write for a reader 36 a. Have a dominant purpose 36 b. Have a clear structure 37 c. Follow clear development patterns 38 A student essay for study 39 6 Begin the composing process 46 a. Analyze the writing situation 47 b. Find a subject in open-ended assignments 50 c. Analyze the language of close-ended assignments 50 d. Narrow the subject so that it can be covered in a single essay 55 e. Use association techniques to gather information 56 f. Evaluate prewritten information 58 7 Write a thesis statement and develop a plan 60 a. Clarify a subject by stating a purpose 61 b. Sketch an informal plan 61 c. Write a clear, limited working thesis statement 63 d. Draft a formal outline 68 8 Write a first draft 71 a. Write an introduction 71 b. Write a discussion several paragraphs long 74 c. Write a conclusion 76 9 Revise the first draft 78 a. Phase 1, improve the major elements 78 b. Phase 2, improve the smaller elements 85 c. Phase 3, proofread and write a title 89 10 Standard manuscript form 91 11 Instructor and peer review 93 Part III Paragraphs 101 12 Topic sentences 102 a. State a paragraph's subject and controlling idea in a brief topic sentence 102 b. Develop a paragraph fully 105 c. Close a paragraph with a clincher sentence 106 13 Unified paragraphs 108 14 Coherent paragraphs 111 a. Achieve coherence with transitional words and phrases 111 b. Achieve coherence through the repetition of key words 112 c. Achieve coherence by using parallel structure 113 15 Descriptive and narrative paragraphs 114 a. Write active description that appeals to the senses 115 b. Balance subjective responses with objective description 117 c. Select an effective arrangement for descriptive paragraphs 118 d. Arrange narrative paragraphs in a clear time sequence 120 16 Expository paragraphs 124 a. Use examples to illustrate a point 124 b. Use comparison to explain similarities and differences 129 c. Use cause and effect to reveal reasons and results 132 d. Use classification to arrange information in categories 136 e. Use definition to clarify unusual words 138 f. Use process analysis to show how to do something or how something works 140 17 Argument paragraphs 142 Part IV Sentence Clarity, Variety, and Word Choice 149 18 Emphasize equal ideas; deemphasize unequal ideas 150 a. Combine choppy sentences 152 b. Avoid faulty or excessive coordination and subordination 152 19 Use parallel structure for emphasis 155 a. Coordinating elements 155 b. Comparing ideas 156 c. Correlative constructions 156 20 Create sentence variety 157 a. Sentence beginnings 158 b. Sentence structures 159 c. Sentence forms 160 21 Rewrite misplaced modifiers 162 a. Modified words 162 b. Squinting modifiers 163 c. Limiting modifiers 163 d. Awkwardly placed modifiers 164 e. Split infinitives 165 f. Dangling modifiers 165 22 Revise for consistency 167 a. Person and number 168 b. Tense 168 c. Mood 169 d. Subject and voice 169 e. Direct and indirect discourse 170 f. Grammatical plans 171 g. Faulty predication 172 23 Add omitted words 173 a. Comparisons 173 b. Missing words in compound word groups 174 c. The word that to prevent misreadings 175 d. Articles a, an, and the 175 24 Use appropriate language 176 a. Slang, regional expressions, neologisms, obsolete words 177 b. Jargon 178 c. Pretentious language 179 d. Sexist language 180 25 Revise wordy sentences 182 a. Empty phrases 182 b. Careless repetition 183 c. Redundancy 184 d. Euphemism 185 26 Choose exact words 186 a. Denotation and connotation 186 b. Abstract and general words 188 c. Idioms 190 d. Figurative language 191 e. Trite expressions 193 Part V Sentence Errors 195 27 Rewrite sentence fragments 196 a. Subordinate clauses 196 b. Phrases 196 c. Compound predicates and word groups 197 d. Special situations 198 28 Revise run-on sentences 200 29 Examine subject-verb agreement 203 a. Intervening words 204 b. Compound subjects 204 c. Singular verbs with indefinite pronouns 205 d. Collective nouns and nouns ending in -s 206 e. Miscellaneous subject-verb agreement problems 207 30 Examine pronoun-antecedent agreement 209 a. Compound antecedents 209 b. Indefinite pronouns as antecedents 210 c. Collective nouns 210 d. Generic nouns 211 e. Who, whom, which, and that 211 31 Check pronoun reference 214 a. Broad references 214 b. It, they, and you 214 c. One antecedent 215 d. -self and -selves 216 32 Use appropriate pronoun case 217 a. Subjective case 218 b. Objective case 219 c. We or us before a noun 219 d. Appositives 219 e. Elliptical comparisons 220 f. Subjects and objects of infinitives 220 g. Possessive case before a gerund 221 h. Who and whom 222 33 Select accurate verb forms and tense 223 a. Present tense 226 b. Past tense 227 c. Future tense 227 d. Present perfect tense 228 e. Past perfect tense 228 f. Future perfect tense 228 g. Sequence of tenses 228 34 Use the appropriate mood 232 a. Subjunctive form were 233 b. Subjunctive form in that clauses 233 c. Standard phrases and idioms 233 35 Write in active rather than passive voice 234 36 Select adjectives and adverbs with care 237 a. In modification 238 b. With linking verbs 238 c. After direct objects 238 d. Bad, badly, good, and well 239 e. Comparisons 240 f. Comparatives and superlatives 241 g. Illogical comparisons 241 Part VI Punctuation 243 37 Comma 244 a. Main clauses joined with and, but, or 244 b. Introductory phrases and clauses 247 c. Nonrestrictive and restrictive elements 249 d. Items in a series 254 e. Coordinate and cumulative adjectives 255 f. Phrases like for example, she said 257 g. Mild interjections like yes, no 258 h. Absolute phrases 259 i. Contrasting expressions 259 j. Direct quotations 259 k. Established conventions 260 l. Misunderstandings and omissions 262 38 Unnecessary commas 263 a. Between subject and verb 263 b. Between verb and object 263 c. Between preposition and object 263 d. Between modified words 263 e. Compound elements 264 f. Restrictive elements 264 g. After like and such as 264 h. Items in a series 264 i. Indirect discourse 265 j. Before than 265 k. Other punctuation marks 265 39 Semicolon 267 a. Between main clauses 267 b. With conjunctive adverbs 268 c. Long main clauses 268 d. Long phrases or clauses with commas 268 e. Misuses 269 40 Quotation marks 271 a. Direct quotations 271 b. Titles 273 c. Words used in a special sense 273 d. With other punctuation marks 274 e. Single quotation marks 275 41 Colon 277 a. To introduce a series 277 b. With the following or as follows 277 c. Second main clause that explains the first 277 d. Final appositive 278 e. Long quotations 278 f. Subtitles 278 g. Formal salutation 278 h. Misuses 278 42 Dash 280 a. Appositives and parenthetical expressions 280 b. To separate a series 280 c. Special emphasis 280 d. Break in tone 281 e. Before a name 281 43 Ellipsis mark 281 a. Omission in quotation 281 b. Omitted paragraph or line of poetry 282 c. Unfinished statement 282 44 Parentheses 283 a. Description and explanation 283 b. With letters or figures 284 45 Brackets 284 46 Slash 285 47 End punctuation 286 a. End statements 286 b. Abbreviations 286 c. Direct questions 287 d. Indicate doubt 287 e. Interjections, commands, emphatic statements 287 Part VII Mechanics 289 48 Capitals 290 a. First word in sentences 290 b. O, I, I've, I'm 290 c. Titles 291 d. Direct quotations 291 e. Lines of poetry 292 f. Names 292 g. Academic titles 294 h. Abbreviations 294 i. Common mistakes 294 49 Apostrophe 296 a. Possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns 296 b. Possessive pronouns 298 c. Omissions 298 d. Plurals of letters and words 298 50 Abbreviations 299 a. Titles before a name 299 b. Titles after a name 299 c. Corporations, organizations, countries 300 d. Common abbreviations 300 e. English and Latin abbreviations 300 f. Common mistakes 300 51 Italics (underlining) 302 a. Titles 302 b. Names of spacecraft, aircraft, ships, trains 303 c. Uncommon expressions 303 d. Words, letters, numbers, phrases, symbols 303 e. Emphasis 304 f. College papers 304 52 Hyphen 304 a. Broken words 304 b. Compound words 305 c. Descriptive words 305 d. Numbers 305 e. Prefixes, suffixes, and letters with words 305 f. Hyphenated words in a series 306 g. Avoid confusion 306 53 Numbers 306 a. Numbers of one or two words 307 b. Numbers of three or more words 307 c. Combination of numbers 307 d. Dates, time, etc. 307 e. Numbers beginning sentences 308 54 Spelling 309 a. i before e 309 b. Final e 309 c. Final y 310 d. Final consonant 310 e. Plurals 310 Part VIII Special College Essays 317 55 The argument essay 318 a. Draft a purpose statement 318 b. Evaluate evidence 319 c. Confront the opposition 321 d. Write a thesis statement 323 e. Arrange an argument 324 f. Write for a reader 325 g. Use the Toulmin model 325 A student argument essay 327 56 The essay about literature 331 a. Formulate a thesis 332 b. Write an introduction 333 c. Write a discussion 335 d. Write a conclusion 337 e. Write a precise title 337 f. Identify quotations 337 g. Use the present tense 338 h. Avoid common mistakes 338 A student essay about literature 339 57 The essay exam 342 a. Writing an essay exam 345 b. Understanding the question 345 c. Planning your time 345 d. Planning your answer 345 e. Writing your response 346 f. Revising and proofreading 347 Part IX The Research Paper 349 58 Researching a paper 350 a. Find and limit a topic 350 b. Use research resources 352 c. Prepare a bibliography 360 d. Develop a tentative thesis and outline 361 e. Take notes 363 f. Twenty student questions and answers 371 59 Writing a research paper 376 a. Revise the thesis and outline 376 b. Write a first draft 377 c. Acknowledge sources 378 d. Complete the final draft 385 e. A sample paper 386 A student research paper 387 60 A documentation guide 406 a. MLA style 406 b. APA style 415 c. CSE style 419 Part X Communicating in the Workplace 425 61 Business letters 426 62 Memorandum form 430 63 R¿sum¿ and cover letter 431 64 Fax and e-mail 434 65 Creating a web site 436 a. Organization 436 b. Home page 437 c. Design 437 d. Links 437 e. Proofreading 437 66 Oral presentations 438 a. Organization 439 b. Rehearsal 442 c. Delivery 443 Part XI Background in the Basics 447 67 Parts of speech 448 a. Nouns 448 b. Pronouns 448 c. Verbs 450 d. Adjectives 452 e. Adverbs 453 f. Prepositions 453 g. Conjunctions 454 h. Interjections 455 68 Parts of sentences 456 a. Simple and complete subject 456 b. Simple and complete predicate 456 c. Compound subject 457 d. Compound predicate 457 e. Direct and indirect objects 457 f. Predicate adjectives and nominatives 458 69 Phrases 459 a. Prepositional phrases 459 b. Appositive phrases 459 c. Infinitives and infinitive phrases 460 d. Participles and participial phrases 460 e. Gerunds and gerund phrases 461 f. Absolute phrases 462 70 Clauses 463 a. Main clauses 463 b. Subordinate clauses 464 71 Sentence patterns 465 Part XII Reminders for ESL Writers 469 72 Omitted words 470 73 Noun markers 471 74 Verb combinations 474 75 Faulty repetitions 480 76 Present and past participles 481 Glossaries 483 Glossary of Usage 484 Glossary of Grammatical Terms 493 Index 000 Features TOC Writer's Toolbox Generating Ideas for Essays The Pop Quiz Secrets of Self-Motivation Read with a Critical Eye Write Now, Plan Later Forecast an Essay's Subpoints Writing Your First Draft on a Computer Insert Key Words in Topic Sentences Developing a Refutation Paragraph Avoiding IM Jargon Using a Software Thesaurus Placing Commas Setting Off Nonrestrictive Elements Knowing the Difference Between Coordinate and Cumulative Adjectives Using That in Paraphrasing and Quoting Capitalizing Titles Using Apostrophes Correctly to Show Possession Conversations and Arguments Finding Online Government Sources Avoiding Plagiarism Using Ellipses in a Direct Quotation Using PowerPoint Editor's Toolbox Making Phase 1 Revisions Making Phase 2 Revisions Making Phase 3 Revisions Making a Frequent Error List Effective Peer Review Watch Your Tone Analyzing Paragraphs for Coherence Thinking Critically About Description Grammar Checkers and Sentence Errors Grammar Checkers and Punctuation Spell Checkers
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
English language -- Grammar -- Handbooks, manuals, etc.
English language -- Rhetoric -- Handbooks, manuals, etc.