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Contents
PART I. Introduction 13
1 Focus of this book 15
1.1. Elements For A Cognitive Descriptive Process Model Of Design 16
1.2. Empirical Basis 16
1.3. Artifacts Under Focus 17
1.4. Focus On The Early Stages Of Design 17
1.5. Individual And Collective Design 17
1.6. Cognition And Emotion 19
2 Public addressed 22
3 Some historical pointers 24
3.1. Software "Design" Studies 26
4 Preliminary terminological issues 27
4.1. Definitions In The Domain Of Problem Solving 28
Designing and problem solving 29
A "problem" is not a "difficulty" or a "deficiency" 29
A "problem" in cognitive psychology: one's representation of a task 30
The double status of "problem" and "solution" 31
Problem "difficulty": a question of "cognitive cost" 33
Processes, operations, and activities. Stages, phases, and steps 33
"Problem solving": a global process versus a particular stage 35
Newell and Simon's symbolic information processing (SIP) approach to problem solving 36
4.2. Definitions In The Domain Of Data Collection 37
Data collection in the psychological laboratory versus in designers' normal work situation 37
Explorational studies 39
Observational studies 40
Verbalization versus Introspection 41
Task versus Activity 45
Interviews 46
5 Models of design 47
5.1. Prescriptive And Descriptive Models 49
Prescriptive models 49
Descriptive models 50
5.2. Stage Models And Process Models 51
Stage models 53
Process models 55
5.3. Confronting These Different Models 57
Observance of the ASE paradigm 58
Observance of the waterfall model 59
6 Our empirical design studies at a glance 60
PART II. The classical view on design. The symbolic information processing approach (SIP)
7 Herbert A. Simon
8 Simon's framework for design: The Sciences of the Artificial Erreur ! Signet non defini.
8.1. Simon's Elaboration Of A SIP Design Theory Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Simon's analytical approach to design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Reception of Simon's design framework Erreur ! Signet non defini.
8.2. Simon's Definition Of Design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
8.3. Design As A Type Of Cognitive Activity Rather Than A Professional Status Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
8.4. Design As Satisficing Erreur ! Signet non defini.
8.5. Design As A Regular Problem-Solving Activity: Simon's "Nothing Special" Position Erreur !
Signet non defini.
8.6. Design Problems: "Ill-Structured" Problems? Erreur ! Signet non defini.
8.7. Solving Ill-Structured Problems In Two Consecutive Stages: First Structuring, Then Solving
Erreur ! Signet non defini.
9 Discussion of the classical symbolic information processing approach to design Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
9.1. Misrepresentations Of Design By The Classical Symbolic Information Processing Approach
Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Underestimating the specificity of ill-defined problems and their solving Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Underestimating the role of problem-representation construction Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Underestimating the role of "nondeterministic leaps" - Overestimating the role of recognition Erreur !
Signet non defini.
Overestimating the role of systematic problem decomposition Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Overestimating the role of search Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Overestimating the role of means-ends analysis Erreur ! Signet non defini.
9.2. Simon's More Nuanced Positions In Later Work Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Scientific discovery and "inventive" design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
9.3. A Possible Explanation Of Simon's Approach To Design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
9.4. Conclusion Concerning The SIP Approach Erreur ! Signet non defini.
PART III. Modern views on design. The situativity approach (SIT) Erreur ! Signet non defini.
10 Situativity and other alternatives to the SIP approach Erreur ! Signet non defini.
10.1. Alternative Approaches To Design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
10.2. Rittel's Argumentative Model Erreur ! Signet non defini.
10.3. Situativity And Cognitive Ergonomics Erreur ! Signet non defini.
10.4. Situativity, Designing And Planning Erreur ! Signet non defini.
11 Early SIT-inspired research Erreur ! Signet non defini.
11.1. Schon Erreur ! Signet non defini.
11.2. Bucciarelli Erreur ! Signet non defini.
12 Current SIT-inspired research Erreur ! Signet non defini.
13 Discussion of the situativity approach approach to design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
PART IV. Confronting classical and modern views on design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
14 Symbolic Information Processing versus Situativity debates in the literature Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
14.1. What Is At Issue? Erreur ! Signet non defini.
14.2. What Is A "Symbol"? Erreur ! Signet non defini.
14.3. What Is "Situativity"? Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Vera and Simon's view Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Greeno and Moore's view Erreur ! Signet non defini.
14.4. Two Critical Distinctions: Denotation Versus Interpretation, And Recognition Versus Direct
Perception Erreur ! Signet non defini.
15 Confrontation of the SIP and SIT approaches Erreur ! Signet non defini.
PART V. Design as construction of representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
16 Definition of design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
16.1. Our Definition Of Design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
16.2. Creativity Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17 Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.1. Forms Of Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.2. Functions Of Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.3. Symbolic Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.4. The Operative And Goal-Oriented Character Of Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.5. Viewpoints, Personal Representations, And Perspectives Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.6. Ambiguity In Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.7. Percepts, Mental Images, Mental Models, And Other Internal Representations Erreur ! Signet
non defini.
17.8. Inter-Designer Compatible Representations In Collaborative Design ("Shared" Representations)
Erreur ! Signet non defini.
17.9. External Representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Forms of external representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Functions of external representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Oral textual representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Graphico-gestural representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Sketches Erreur ! Signet non defini.
18 Representations at the source of a design project: requirements and "design problems" Erreur ! Signet
non defini.
18.1. Design Problems In Problem Typologies Erreur ! Signet non defini.
The classical cognitive-psychology distinction: transformation, structure-induction, and arrangement
problems Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Routine versus nonroutine problems Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Semantically rich versus semantically impoverished problems Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Interpretation versus generation problems Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Analysis versus synthesis problems Erreur ! Signet non defini.
18.2. Ill-Definedness Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Related notions Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Wicked Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Vague Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Design characteristics associated with its ill-definedness Erreur ! Signet non defini.
18.3. Complexity Erreur ! Signet non defini.
18.4. Constraints On The Artifact Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Temporal and spatial constraints Erreur ! Signet non defini.
19 Intermediate representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
19.1. The Evolving Nature Of Representations: Levels Of Abstraction Erreur ! Signet non defini.
19.2. The Evolving Nature Of Representations: Degrees Of Precision Erreur ! Signet non defini.
20 Representations at the end of a design project: specifications and "design solutions" Erreur ! Signet
non defini.
20.1. Several Satisfactory Solutions Instead Of One Correct Solution Erreur ! Signet non defini.
20.2. Impossibility To Test The Artifact Specified By The Solution Erreur ! Signet non defini.
20.3. Quality Of Design Solutions Erreur ! Signet non defini.
21 Designing as an activity: construction of representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
21.1. Designing As Satisficing, Both In Generation And In Evaluation Of Solutions Erreur ! Signet
non defini.
21.2. The Intermingled Character Of Requirements Development And Design, And Of Design And
Implementation Erreur ! Signet non defini.
21.3. Designing As A Cognitive Activity Rather Than A Professional Status Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
21.4. The Opportunistic Organization Of Design: Decomposition And Planning Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
A systematic decomposition approach to design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Top-down and bottom-up strategies Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Breadth-first and depth-first strategies Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Top-down, breadth-first refinement Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Planning: plan elaboration and plan execution Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Decomposition, planning, and organization Erreur ! Signet non defini.
The opportunistic organization of design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Our analysis of the opportunistic organization of design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Discussion of our opportunistic-organization position Erreur ! Signet non defini.
21.5. Design Strategies Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Reuse versus design "from scratch" Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Simulation Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Selection of a kernel idea and Premature commitment to the idea Erreur ! Signet non defini.
User considerations guiding development and evaluation Erreur ! Signet non defini.
21.6. Design Representation Construction Activities Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Problem representation, solution generation, and solution evaluation: three "stages" in design as problem
solving Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Using knowledge in design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Generation and transformation of representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Evaluation of representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Collaborative design through interaction Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Construction of inter-designer compatible representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
22 Discussion Erreur ! Signet non defini.
22.1. "Generic" Design, But Also Different "Forms" Of Design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Maturity of a domain Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Use of internal versus external representations Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Use of graphical representations versus other types of external representations Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
Dependencies between function and form Erreur ! Signet non defini.
"Designing in space versus time" (Thomas & Carroll, 1979/1984) Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Design of structures versus design of processes Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Distance between design concept and final product Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Possible forms of evaluation Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Delay of implementation Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Impact of an artifact on human activity and the possibility to anticipate it Erreur ! Signet non defini.
The transformative nature of the artifact Erreur ! Signet non defini.
The role of the user in the design process Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Artifacts' behavior over time Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Other dimensions Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Software and HCI design versus other forms of design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
22.2. Linking Representational Structures And Activities Erreur ! Signet non defini.
PART VI. Conclusion Erreur ! Signet non defini.
23 SIP and SIT, individual and collective design Erreur ! Signet non defini.
24 Design involves more than problem solving Erreur ! Signet non defini.
25 Construction of representations: conclusion and framework for further research Erreur ! Signet non
defini.
PART VII. References Erreur ! Signet non defini.
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Human engineering.
Industrial design.
Design -- Human factors.
Cognitive science.