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Contents Acknowledgements v Contents vii Tables and maps xvi Key to symbols xxi Introduction 1 1. The strategic value of the Xiang dialect group 2 2. The linguistic approach of this book 3 3. The framework and the arrangement of this book 6 4. Data of this book 7 5. Overview of Xiang grammar 7 5.1. Word structure: Morphology and word formation 8 5.1.1. Affixation 8 5.1.2. Reduplication 11 5.1.3. Compounding 12 5.2. Syntactic categories: Parts of speech and related constructions 13 5.2.1. Nouns (N) 13 5.2.2. Verbs (V) 13 5.2.3. Adjectives (Adj) 14 5.2.4. Numerals (Num) 14 5.2.5. Classifiers (CL) 14 5.2.6. Pronouns (Pron) 15 5.2.7. Adverbs (Adv) 16 5.2.8. Prepositions (Prep) 16 5.2.9. Particles 16 5.2.10. Conjunctions (Conj) 17 5.3. Word order 17 Chapter 1. The spoken language of the Xiang dialects 19 1. The phonological features of the Xiang dialects 19 2. Evolution of the phonological system of the Changsha dialect 21 2.1. Three spoken codes in the Changsha dialect 22 2.1.1. Spoken Changsha 22 2.1.2. Reading Changsha 23 2.1.3. Suliao or 'plastic' Putonghua 28 2.2. Code conflict and phonological-semantic rearrangement 33 2.2.1. Regular sound change and phonological-semantic rearrangement 33 2.2.2. Cross-code borrowing and phonological-semantic rearrangement 34 2.2.3. Analogical sound change and phonological-semantic rearrangement 39 Chapter 2. Written language of the Xiang dialects 45 1. The use of characters in A Dictionary of the Changsha Dialect 48 1.1. Corresponding characters borrowed from Mandarin 50 1.1.1. The effects of irregular phonological change 51 1.1.2. The effects of semantic development 54 1.1.3. The effects of compounds with different interpretations 54 1.1.4. The effects of classification of characters 55 1.2. Corresponding characters borrowed from early Chinese 57 1.3. Homophonous characters 57 1.4. A hollow rectangle 58 2. The use of characters for local words in the novel Great Changes in a Mountain Village 58 2.1. Character changes in the second edition of Zhou's novel 60 2.1.1. A local expression replaced by a Mandarin expression 60 2.1.2. A homophonous character replaced by a corresponding character 62 3. The use of characters in local operatic texts 64 3.1. The local perfective and continuative [??21] recorded by Mandarin? le and ? zhe 65 3.1.1. The use of the character ? le 65 3.1.2. The use of the character ? zhe 66 3.2. The perfective marker [??41] and perfective and anterior marker [??41??21] recorded by Mandarin? le 67 4. The use of characters in this book 69 4.1. The use of corresponding characters 69 4.2. The use of homophonous characters 70 4.3. The use of a hollow rectangle 70 Chapter 3. Morphology and its evolution in the Xiang dialects 72 1. The lexicon of the Xiang dialects 72 1.1. Type one: Monosyllabic words or morphemes absent in the MCD 73 1.2. Type two: Compounds with some or all parts absent in the MCD 73 1.3. Type three: Monosyllabic free words with correspondences in the MCD 73 1.4. Type four: Compounds of which all constituents have correspondences in the MCD 74 1.5. Verbs for bodily movements in the Changsha and Loudi dialects 76 1.5.1. Movements relating to the five senses 76 1.5.2. Movements with the head 76 1.5.3. Movements with the hand(s) 76 1.5.4. Movements with the feet 77 1.5.5. Movements with the whole body 77 1.5.6. Other movements 78 1.5.7. Phonetic and semantic relationships among the verbs for bodily movements 78 2. Affixation and its evolution in the Xiang dialects 81 2.1. Evolution of prefixes for the intensification of adjectives 81 2.1.1. The classification of the [Very X] adjectives 82 2.1.2. Path of grammaticalization of the prefix in the [Very X] adjectives 86 2.2. The diminutive suffixes and their evolution 88 2.2.1. [??a]-like forms 90 2.2.2. [???]-like forms 93 2.2.3. [???]-like forms 97 2.2.4. The evolution of diminutive suffixes and nominalizers 100 2.3. The evolution of gender markers 105 2.3.1. The semantic and structural differences between preceding markers and postposed markers 106 2.3.2. The evolution of animal terms from monosyllabic to bisyllabic 107 2.3.3. Hypothesis of the different patterns of gender markers 111 Chapter 4. Pronouns and their evolution in the Xiang dialects 114 1. The pronouns of the Changsha dialect and the functional differences in pronouns across the Xiang dialects 114 1.1 Personal pronouns 114 1.2. Demonstrative pronouns 116 1.3. Interrogative pronouns 119 2. The evolution of plural forms 121 3. The evolution of personal and demonstrative pronouns 123 3.1. The phonological links among personal pronouns 124 3.2. The phonological relationships among demonstrative pronouns 127 3.2.1. The two-way pronouns 128 3.2.2. The three-way pronouns 131 3.3. Relationships between personal and demonstrative pronouns 132 3.3.1. The 1st person pronoun and the demonstrative pronoun 'this' 132 3.3.2. The 2nd person pronoun and the demonstrative pronoun 'this there' 133 3.3.3. The 3rd person pronoun and the demonstrative pronoun 'that' 133 3.4. The evolution of personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns 134 Chapter 5. Adverbs and their evolution in the Xiang dialects 139 1. Adverbs in the Changsha dialect 140 1.1. Adverbs of time 140 1.1.1. Adverbs meaning 'at once; immediately' 141 1.1.2. Adverbs meaning 'just about (to do something)' 142 1.1.3. Adverbs meaning 'from beginning to end' 142 1.2. Adverbs of manner 142 1.3. Adverbs of negation 143 1.4. Adverbs of frequency 144 1.4.1. Adverbs meaning 'to keep an action going' 145 1.4.2. Adverbs meaning 'sometimes' 145 1.4.3. Adverbs meaning 'very often' 146 1.4.4. Adverbs meaning 'in any case; always' 147 1.5. Adverbs of scope 148 1.5.1. Adverbs meaning 'all' 148 1.5.2. Adverbs meaning 'at all' 148 1.5.3. Adverbs meaning 'altogether' 149 1.6. Adverbs of comparison 150 1.7. Adverbs of degree 151 1.7.1. Adverbs of degree in the [Adv + Adj/V] construction 151 1.7.2. Adverbs of degree in the [Adj/V + (de)+Adv] construction 152 1.8. Adverbs of mood 153 1.8.1. Adverbs meaning 'especially' 153 1.8.2. Adverbs meaning 'perhaps' 153 1.8.3. Adverbs meaning 'deliberately' 154 1.8.4. Adverbs meaning 'why not' 155 1.8.5. Adverbs meaning 'prefer; simply' 155 1.8.6. Adverbs meaning 'happen to' 156 1.8.7. Adverbs meaning 'surely' 156 1.8.8. Adverbs meaning 'definitely' 156 1.8.9. Adverbs meaning 'indeed' 157 1.8.10. Adverbs for asking an emphatic rhetorical question 158 2. The evolution of negative adverbs 158 2.1. The typology of ? méiverb and ? méiadverb 160 2.1.1. Both ? méi verb and ? méi dverb are bilabial stops 160 2.1.2. Both ? méi verb and ? méi adverb are bilabial nasals 162 2.2. The typology of ? bù and ? méi 168 Chapter 6. The evolution of passive and disposal constructions in the Xiang dialects 178 1. Prepositional markers and their construction in the Changsha dialect 178 1.1. Prepositions for location 179 1.2. Starting point preposition 180 1.3. Passive preposition 181 1.4. Disposal preposition 181 1.5. Preposition of purpose 182 1.6. Preposition for 'to follow' 182 1.7. Preposition of comparison 182 2. Disposal and passive constructions and their evolution 184 2.1. Etymology of the disposal and passive markers 187 2.1.1. Etymology of the disposal markers 187 2.1.2. Etymology of the passive markers 192 2.2. A hypothetical grammaticalization path of disposal and passive markers 198 Chapter 7. Aspectual markers and their evolution in the Xiang dialects 207 1. Aspectual markers in the Changsha and Xiangxiang dialects 208 1.1. Perfective (PER) aspectual markers in the Changsha and Xiangxiang dialects 208 1.1.1. The structure [V + PER + ? qù 'to go' + (MOD)] 209 1.1.2. The structure [V + PER + NP + (MOD)] 210 1.1.3. The structure [V + PER + Q + (MOD)] 211 1.1.4. The structure [V1 + PER + Q/(NP) + V2] 213 1.2. Anterior (ANT) aspectual markers in the Changsha and Xiangxiang dialects 216 1.2.1. The structure [V + ka41/ ka3 + NP + ta21/ li2 + (MOD)] 217 1.2.2. The structure [V + NP + ANT + (MOD)] 218 1.2.3. The structure [V + COMP + ANT + (MOD)] 219 1.2.4. The structure [V + ANT + (MOD)] 221 1.2.5. The structure [V + ANT + NP + (MOD)] 222 1.3. Continuative (CON) aspectual markers in the Changsha and Xiangxiang dialects 223 1.3.1. The structure [V1 + CON1 + V1 + CON1+ (V2)] 225 1.3.2. The structure [? yi + V + CON + (MOD)] 226 1.3.3. The structure [V1 + CON + (NP) + V2] 227 1.3.4. The structure [V + CON + ? qù + (MOD)] 228 1.3.5. The structure [V + CON + (NP) + (MOD)] 229 2. The evolution of locative markers to aspectual markers 231 2.1. Comparison and contrast of the four locative markers 232 2.1.1. The postverbal locative construction 233 2.1.2. The preverbal locative construction 236 2.1.3. The perfective aspectual constructions 239 2.1.4. The durative aspectual construction 240 2.2. The evolution of the four locative markers 242 2.2.1. The evolution of [tsai21] and [tau45] 242 2.2.2. The evolution of [ta21] and [t?24] 247 3. Grammaticalization path of aspectual markers 248 3.1. Lexical source of the aspectual marker [ti] in the Yiyang dialect 249 3.1.1. Phonological evidence 251 3.1.2. Semantic evidence 254 3.2. The evolution of the aspectual system of Early Modern Chinese 257 3.2.1. The parallel chains of Early Modern Chinese and the Xiang dialects 257 3.2.2. Comparison of the aspectual markers among Early Modern Chinese, Mandarin and the Xiang dialects 260 3.2.3. The networks of Early Modern Chinese and the Xiang dialects 262 Chapter 8. The evolution of structural particles in the Xiang dialects 266 1. The evolution of attributive and nominalised particles 267 1.1. Classification and distribution of the attributive particles 267 1.1.1. Pattern a: [N/Pron + SP + N] 270 1.1.2. Pattern aa: [Pron/N + de] 273 1.1.3. Pattern b: [Adj + de + N] 274 1.1.4. Pattern bb: [Adj + de] 275 1.1.5. Patterns c and cc [V + de + N] and [V + de] 278 1.2. Evolution of the attributive particles 279 1.2.1. Etymology of ? gè 280 1.2.2. The evolution of the attributive particles 284 2. Usage of adverbial particles and its evolution 289 3. Usages of complement particles and their evolution 290 3.1. ? qi and ? dé used as verbs 291 3.2. ? qi and ? dé used as complements 291 3.3. ? qi and ? dé used as aspectual markers 293 3.4. ? qi and ? dé used as structural particles 294 Chapter 9. The modal particles in the Xiang dialects and their evolution 298 1. The modal particles in the Changsha dialect 299 1.1. Phrase particles 299 1.1.1. To indicate pauses 300 1.1.2. To indicate relationships between clauses 301 1.1.3. To indicate enumeration 303 1.2. Sentence final particles 303 1.2.1. Interrogative sentences and interrogative particles 304 1.2.2. Imperative sentences 307 1.2.3. Declarative particles 307 1.2.4. Exclamatory particles 308 2. Evolution of modal particles in Yes/No interrogative sentences 309 2.1. The distribution of Yes/No constructions in the Xiang dialects 313 2.1.1. Yes/No questions in local operas 313 2.1.2. Yes/No questions in the sample sentences from Grammar Series on the Hunan Dialects 319 2.2. The distribution of fusion forms in the Xiang dialects 324 2.2.1. Fusion forms in the Hengshan dialect 325 2.2.2. Fusion forms in the Yiyang dialect 325 Chapter 10. The evolution of double-object and ? de constructions in the Xiang dialects 327 1. Word order in the Changsha dialect 327 1.1. Word order in constructions of possibility 327 1.2. Word order in resultative complements 329 1.3. Word order in Mandarin construction [Auxiliary verb + V + O] 329 1.4. Word order in Mandarin construction [V + Adj + ??? yìdianr 'a little bit'] 330 1.5. Word order in Mandarin construction [AA+ SP + V + Q] 330 2. Double-object constructions: Their word order and evolution 331 3. Evolution of the [? de + V] and [V +?de] constructions 343 3.1. Usage of?de in Chinese history 343 3.2. [de + V] and [V + de] in the Xiang dialects 344 3.2.1. [de + V] and [V + de] from two written works 344 3.2.2. Semantic contrasts between [de + V] and [V + de] 345 3.3. The evolution of [de + V] and [V + de] 355 3.3.1. The evolution of [de + V] 355 3.3.2. The evolution of [V + de] 358 Final remarks 364 Appendix 366 1. Phonetic symbols 366 1.1. Consonants 366 1.2. Vowels 367 1.3. Tones 368 2. The initials and finals in the Hunan dialects 368 2.1. Initials 368 2.2. Finals 368 3. The sound system of spoken Changsha 369 3.1. Initials 369 3.2. Finals 371 3.3. Tones 373 4. Sample of plastic Putonghua: Letter from a child 374 5. Maps 375 5.1. The classification and distribution of dialects spoken in Hunan 375 5.2. The distribution of the word [p?au] 'ten' in the Hunan dialects 376 5.3. The distribution of the word [xa]'all' in the Hunan dialects 377 5.4. The distribution of voiced consonants in the Hunan dialects 378 5.5. The classification and distribution of deposal markers in the Hunan dialects 379 5.6. The classification and distribution of passive markers in the Hunan dialects 380 5.7. The distribution of aspectual markers [ta] and [li] in the Hunan dialects 381 5.8. The classification and distribution of attributive structural particles in the Hunan dialects 382 6. Data and sources of data 383 6.1. Data and sources of Chapter 3: [???]-like forms in the Hunan dialects 383 6.2. Data and sources of Chapter 4: pronouns in the Hunan dialects 385 6.3. Data and sources of Chapter 5: Negative adverbs in the Hunan dialects 390 6.4. Data and sources of Chapter 6: Disposal and passive markers in the Hunnan dialects 392 6.5. Data and sources of Chapter 7: Perfective markers in the Hunan dialects 397 6.6. Data and sources of Chapter 8: Attributive markers in the Hunan dialects 400 Notes 404 References 415 Index 434
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Xiang dialects -- Grammar.
Historical linguistics -- China -- Hunan Sheng.