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Contents Preface 1 The Research Enterprise in Criminal Justice and Criminology 1 Chapter Objectives 1 Introduction 1 Overview of the Research Process 5 The Research Enterprise 5 Steps to Conduct Research in Criminal Justice 5 Problem Formulation 6 Research Design 9 Data Collection Methods 9 Analysis of Data 13 Presentation of Findings 13 Conclusions 14 Pure and Applied Research 18 Some Basic Assumptions about Criminal Justice and Criminology 19 Why Do Research? 24 The Emergence of Science and Criminal Justice 25 The Probability Nature of Science 26 Objectivity in Scientific Research 28 Functions of Research 29 Exploratory Functions 29 Descriptive Functions 30 Experimental Functions 31 Evaluation Research 33 Theory Defined 38 Assumptions, Propositions, and Definitions 38 Explanation and Prediction 40 Types of Theory 42 Deductive Theory 42 Inductive Theory 44 Grounded Theory 45 Axiomatic Theory 51 Variables and Theory 53 Independent Variables 54 Dependent Variables 54 Discrete Variables 56 Continuous Variables 57 $$$ Relations between Variables 57 The Complementarity of Theory and Research 58 Hypotheses and Theory: A Preliminary View 58 The Value of Theory 60 Atheoretical Evaluations 60 The Value of Research 61 Summary 61 Questions for Review 63 2 Frames of Reference and Problem Formulation 65 Chapter Outline 65 Chapter Objectives 65 Introduction 66 What Are Frames of Reference? 67 Choosing a Frame of Reference 69 Values and Frames of Reference 69 Are Frames of Reference Used in All Research? 70 Frames of Reference and Theory 71 Deciding What to Study: Topics of Investigation for Criminal Justice and Criminology 72 Reviewing the Literature 76 Sources for Literature Reviews 80 "Hands-On" Research and Investigations from a Distance 83 "Hands-On" Research 83 Investigations from a Distance 87 The Uniform Crime Reports and the National Crime Victimization Survey 87 Issues in Formulating Research Problems 89 Summary 95 Questions for Review 98 3 Research Designs 99 Chapter Outline 99 Chapter Objectives 99 Introduction 100 Qualitative and Quantitative Research 102 Qualitative Research 102 Quantitative Research 103 Research Objectives and Designs 104 Exploration and Exploratory Objectives 105 Description and Descriptive Objectives 106 Experimentation and Experimental Objectives 108 Some Conventional Research Designs 111 Surveys 111 Case Studies 117 Comparison of Surveys and Case Studies 121 Classic Experimental Design 122 Experimental and Control Groups 122 Equivalent Groups and Establishing Equivalence 124 Pretests and Posttests 128 Variations in the Classic Experimental Design 130 The After-Only Design 130 The Before-After Design 131 True Experiments and Quasi-Experiments 132 Time-Series and Multiple Time-Series Designs 134 Cost-Benefit Analyses 137 Internal and External Validity 139 Internal Validity and Threats 139 External Validity and Threats 141 Summary 143 Questions for Review 147 4 Data Collection Strategies I: Sampling Techniques, Purposes, and Problems 148 Chapter Outline 148 Chapter Objectives 148 Introduction 149 What is Sampling? 150 Populations and Parameters 150 Samples and Statistics 151 Generalizability and Representativeness 151 The Decision to Sample 153 Size of the Target Population 153 Cost of Obtaining the Elements 154 Convenience and Accessibility of the Elements 154 Some Functions of Sampling 154 Economizing Resources 155 Manageability 155 Meeting Assumptions of Statistical Tests 155 Meeting the Requirements of Experiments 155 Probability Sampling Plans 156 Randomness 160 Simple Random Sampling and Random Numbers Tables 162 Stratified Random Sampling 168 Area, Cluster, or Multistage Sampling 171 Nonprobability Sampling Plans 174 Accidental Sampling 175 Systematic Sampling 176 Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 178 Quota Sampling 179 Snowball Sampling and the Use of Informants 180 Dense and Saturation Sampling 182 Types of Sampling Situations 184 Single-Sample Situations 184 Two- and k-Sample Situations 185 Independent Samples 186 Related Samples 187 Some Selected Sampling Problems 187 Determining Sample Size 188 Nonresponse and What to Do about It 188 Is the Sample Representative? Uncertainty about Representativeness 192 Sampling and Statistical Analysis 192 Ideal and Real Sampling Considerations 193 Potentates: Juveniles, Prisoners, and Permission to Sample Special Populations of Subjects 193 Summary 197 Questions for Review 201 5 Data Collection Strategies II: Questionnaires 203 Chapter Outline 203 Chapter Objectives 203 Introduction 204 Questionnaires in Criminal Justice Research 205 Functions of Questionnaires 207 Description 207 Measurement 211 Types of Questionnaires 211 Fixed-Response Questionnaires 211 Open-Ended Questionnaires 214 Combinations of Fixed-Response and Open-Ended Items 215 Comparison of Fixed-Response and Open-Ended Items 216 Questionnaire Administration 220 Mailed Questionnaires 220 Face-to-Face Questionnaire Administration 225 Comparison of Mailed Questionnaires with Face-to-Face Questionnaire Administration 225 Questionnaire Construction 226 Selecting and Ordering the Questionnaire Items 228 Response and Nonresponse: Some Considerations 231 Questionnaire Length 231 Questionnaire Content and Wording: Possible Sources of Bias 231 Double-Barreled Questions 232 The Use of Certain Key Words 232 Anonymity 233 Self-Reports 234 Research Applications of Self-Reports 234 How Do You Know Respondents Tell the Truth? The Lie Factor 236 Cultural Values and Questionnaire Wording 237 Other Factors 238 What about Nonresponse? 239 Summary 239 Questions for Review 242 6 Data Collection Strategies III: Interviews 243 Chapter Outline 243 Chapter Objectives 243 Introduction 244 Interviews as Instruments in Criminal Justice Research 246 Interviews Contrasted with Questionnaires 247 Types of Interviews 248 Unstructured Interviews 248 Structured Interviews and the Focused Interview 251 In-Depth Interviews 257 Telephone Interviews 265 Functions of Interviewing 268 Description 268 Exploration 268 Interview Construction 272 Conducting Interviews 284 Gaining Access to Organizations 284 Arranging the Interview 285 Training and Orientation for Interviewers 285 What Makes a Good Interviewer? Personality Factors 286 Dressing Appropriately 286 Probing 287 Videotaping or Tape-Recording Interviews 288 The Use of Lie Detectors and Polygraph Tests 288 Interviewing May Be Dangerous 288 Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews in Criminal Justice Research 289 Summary 291 Questions for Review 294 7 Data Collection Strategies IV: Observational Techniques and the Use of Secondary Sources 295 Chapter Outline 295 Chapter Objectives 295 Introduction 296 What is Observation? 297 Major Purposes of Observation 298 Types of Observation 299 Participant Observation 299 Nonparticipant Observation and Unobtrusive Observation 300 Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation in Criminological Research 302 Impact of the Observer on the Observed 306 Impact of the Observed on the Observer 307 Analysis of Secondary Sources 309 The Major Features of Secondary Sources 309 Types of Secondary Sources 309 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Sources 320 Content Analysis 321 Some Examples of Content Analysis 321 Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis 326 Official and Criminal Justice Agency Records 326 Canned Data Sets 327 Meta-Analysis 327 Advantages and Disadvantages of Meta-Analysis 329 Summary 330 Questions for Review 333 8 Measurement of Variables in Criminal Justice and Criminology 334 Chapter Outline 334 Chapter Objectives 334 Introduction 335 Measurement of Variables in Criminology and Criminal Justice 337 Functions of Measurement 338 Conceptualizations of Social and Psychological Phenomena 338 Rendering Data Amenable to Statistical Treatment 338 Assisting in Hypothesis Testing and Theory Verification 339 Differentiating between People According to Properties They Possess 344 Hypotheses: Operationalizing Variables 345 Nominal and Operational Definitions 345 Concepts 347 Constructs 347 Levels of Measurement 351 Nominal Level of Measurement 355 Ordinal Level of Measurement 355 Interval Level of Measurement 356 Ratio Level of Measurement 357 Types of Scaling Procedures for Measuring Variables 359 Likert-Type Scales 359 Thurstone Scales and Equal-Appearing Intervals 370 Other Types of Scaling Procedures 375 Guttman Scaling 375 The Semenatic Differential 380 Q-Sort 382 The Sellin-Wolfgang Crime Severity Index 383 The Salient Factor Score (SFS 81) 383 Greenwood's Rand Seven-Factor Index 385 Some Issues of Measurement 386 Attitude-Action Relation 386 Social Desirability as a Contaminating Factor 387 Response Sets and Validity 389 The Level of Measurement-Statistical Choices Relation 390 Summary 392 Questions for Review 395 9 Validity and Reliability of Measures 397 Chapter Outline 397 Chapter Objectives 397 Introduction 398 Validity Defined 399 Types of Validity 401 Content Validity 401 Pragmatic Validity 405 Construct Validity 410 Reliability Defined 412 Why is it Important to Have Reliable Measures? 412 Types of Reliability 413 Internal Reliability Checks 414 External Reliability Checks 422 Some Functional Relationships between Validity and Reliability 425 Factors that Affect Validity and Reliability 425 The Instrument and Its Contents 426 Environmental Factors 427 Personal Factors 427 Researcher Interpretations 428 Testing (Pretest) Effect 429 Selection Bias 429 Experimental Mortality 430 Hawthorne Effect 431 Halo Effect 432 Placebo Effect 433 Diffusion of Treatment with Control and Experimental Groups 434 Summary 435 Questions for Review 438 10 Data Coding, Presentation, and Description Techniques 440 Chapter Outline 440 Chapter Objectives 440 Introduction 440 Coding Variables 442 Verification and Cleaning Data 450 Simple Data Presentation 452 Measures of Crime and Crime Rates 452 Crime Rates 452 Ratios 455 Graphic Presentation 456 Functions of Graphic Presentation 456 Types of Graphic Presentation 460 Pie Charts 460 Bar Graphs 461 Tabular Presentation and Cross-Tabulation 463 Tables and How to Read Them 463 Other Forms of Tabular Presentation 473 Deciding How Best to Present Your Information 473 Summary 475 Questions for Review 476 11 Hypothesis Testing and Theory Verification 477 Chapter Outline 477 Chapter Objectives 477 Introduction 477 Hypotheses and Theory 479 Types of Hypotheses, Hypothesis Construction, and Hypothesis Sets 483 Research Hypotheses 483 Null Hypotheses 484 Statistical Hypotheses 488 Where do Hypotheses Come From? 490 Hypothesis Formulation: Good, Better, and Best 493 Functions of Hypotheses 493 Single-Variable, Two-Variable, and K-Variable Hypotheses 494 Single-Variable Hypotheses 494 Two-Variable Hypotheses 494 K-Variable Hypotheses 495 Hypothesis Testing 496 Interpreting the Results of Hypothesis Tests 497 Theoretical Considerations 500 Sampling Considerations 500 Measurement Considerations 503 Data Collection Procedures as a Consideration 503 Statistical Considerations 503 Participant Observation as a Consideration 503 Summary 504 Questions for Review 505 12 Ethics in Research 506 Chapter Outline 506 Chapter Objectives 506 Introduction 507 Ethics Defined 507 Ethical Practices in Criminal Justice Organizations Distinguished from Ethical Dilemmas in Research 508 Ethics and Social Responsibility 511 Ethics and Criminological Research 513 Types of Ethical Problems in Research 514 Plagiarism 514 Fraudulent Research and Statistical Manipulation 516 Research Potentially Harmful to Human Subjects 516 Deception: Lying to Respondents 524 Accessing Confidential Records and Information 525 Sex Offenders: Sexual Histories and Stimulus-Response Experiments 529 Granting Permission to Study Subordinates, Potentates, and Juveniles 530 The Nuremberg Code 531 Professional Associations and the Development of Ethical Standards for Research 532 University Guidelines for Research Projects: The Use of Human Subjects 540 Ethical Issues 544 Sponsored Research and Investigator Interests: Choice or Chance? 544 Rights of Human Subjects 546 Informed Consent and How Personal Information Will Be Used 549 Summary 552 Questions for Review 554 Appendix: Writing Papers and Research Reports 555 Introduction 555 Types of Papers and Research Reports 555 Term Papers 555 Reviews of the Literature 557 Critical Essays and Position Papers 558 Research Papers 558 Master's Theses and Doctoral Dissertations 558 A Thesis/Dissertation Proposal Outline 560 Sources for References 565 Legal Research in Criminal Justice 575 U.S. Supreme Court Decisions 576 Lower Federal Court Opinions 577 State Supreme Court Decisions 578 Glossary 579 References 605 Index 617
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Criminology -- Methodology.
Criminal justice, Administration of -- Methodology.