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C H A P T E R One Introduction: Some Background Basics 3 Focus Preview 3 Getting Started 4 Evolution of the Discipline 4 Geography and Human Geography 6 Human Geography 7 Background Basics 7 Core Geographic Concepts 7 Location, Direction, and Distance 9 Location 9 Direction 11 Distance 12 Size and Scale 12 Physical and Cultural Attributes 13 The Changing Attributes of Place 14 Interrelations between Places 15 The Structured Content of Place 16 Density 16 Dispersion 17 Pattern 17 Place Similarity and Regions 17 Types of Regions 18 Maps 20 Map Scale 20 The Globe Grid 20 How Maps Show Data 21 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 22 Mental Maps 26 Systems, Maps, and Models 27 The Structure of This Book 29 Summary 29 Key Words 30 For Review 30 Focus Follow-up 30 Selected References 31 PART One Themes and Fundamentals of Human Geography 32 C H A P T E R Two Roots and Meaning of Culture 35 Focus Preview 35 Components of Culture 36 Interaction of People and Environment 39 Environments as Controls 39 Human Impacts 40 Roots of Culture 42 Seeds of Change 44 Agricultural Origins and Spread 46 Neolithic Innovations 47 Culture Hearths 48 The Structure of Culture 51 Culture Change 52 Innovation 52 Diffusion 55 Acculturation and Cultural Modification 57 Contact between Regions 58 Summary 60 Key Words 61 For Review 61 Focus Follow-up 61 Selected References 62 C H A P T E R Three Spatial Interaction and Spatial Behavior 65 Focus Preview 65 Bases for Interaction 66 A Summarizing Model 67 Complementarity 67 Transferability 67 Intervening Opportunity 68 Measuring Interaction 68 Distance Decay 68 The Gravity Concept 69 Interaction Potential 70 Movement Biases 70 Human Spatial Behavior 71 Individual Activity Space 72 The Tyranny of Time 74 Distance and Human Interaction 74 Spatial Interaction and the Accumulation of Information 75 Information Flows 76 Information and Perception 78 Perception of Environment 78 Perception of Natural Hazards 81 Migration 84 Principal Migration Patterns 84 Types of Migration 86 Controls on Migration 88 Summary 95 Key Words 96 For Review 96 Focus Follow-up 96 Selected References 97 C H A P T E R Four Population: World Patterns, Regional Trends 101 Focus Preview 101 Population Growth 102 Some Population Definitions 104 Birth Rates 104 Fertility Rates 107 Death Rates 108 Population Pyramids 112 Natural Increase 114 Doubling Times 114 The Demographic Transition 118 The Western Experience 119 A Divided World Converging 120 The Demographic Equation 122 Population Relocation 124 Immigration Impacts 124 World Population Distribution 125 Population Density 127 Overpopulation 129 Urbanization 130 Population Data and Projections 130 Population Data 130 Population Projections 132 Population Controls 133 Population Prospects 135 Momentum 135 Aging 135 Summary 136 Key Words 137 For Review 137 Focus Follow-up 137 Selected References 138 PART Two Patterns of Diversity and Unity 140 C H A P T E R Five Language and Religion: Mosaics of Culture 143 Focus Preview 143 The Geography of Language 145 Classification of Languages 145 World Pattern of Languages 147 Language Spread 151 Language Change 152 The Story of English 153 Standard and Variant Languages 154 Standard Language 154 Dialects 155 Dialects in America 156 Pidgins and Creoles 158 Lingua Franca 159 Official Languages 160 Language, Territoriality, and Identity 161 Language on the Landscape: Toponymy 162 Patterns of Religion 165 Religion and Culture 166 Classification of Religion 166 Patterns and Flows 167 The World Pattern 167 The Principal Religions 169 Judaism 169 Christianity 170 Regions and Landscapes of Christianity 172 Islam 176 Hinduism 178 Buddhism 180 East Asian Ethnic Religions 182 Summary 184 Key Words 184 For Review 185 Focus Follow-up 185 Selected References 186 C H A P T E R Six Ethnic Geography: Threads of Diversity 189 Focus Preview 189 Ethnic Diversity and Separatism 191 Immigration Streams 193 Acculturation and Assimilation 196 Areal Expressions of Ethnicity 198 Charter Cultures 200 Ethnic Clusters 201 Black Dispersions 203 Hispanic Concentrations 205 Asian Contrasts 207 Immigrant Gateways and Clusters 208 French Uniformity 208 Urban Ethnic Diversity and Segregation 209 External Controls 211 Internal Controls 211 Shifting Ethnic Concentrations 212 Typologies and Spatial Results 214 Native-Born Dispersals 215 Cultural Transfer 216 The Ethnic Landscape 218 Land Survey 219 Settlement Patterns 220 Ethnic Regionalism 221 Summary 224 Key Words 224 For Review 225 Focus Follow-up 225 Selected References 225 C H A P T E R Seven Folk and Popular Culture: Diversity and Uniformity 229 Focus Preview 229 Folk Cultural Diversity and Regionalism 230 Anglo American Hearths 232 Folk Building Traditions 234 The Northern Hearths 236 The Lower St. Lawrence Valley 236 Southern New England 237 The Hudson Valley 238 The Middle Atlantic Hearths 238 The Delaware Valley 238 Chesapeake Bay 238 The Southern Hearths 238 The Southern Tidewater 239 The Mississippi Delta 239 Interior and Western Hearths 239 Architectural Diffusions 240 Folk Fencing in Anglo America 241 Nonmaterial Folk Culture 242 Folk Food and Drink Preferences 244 Folk and Customary Foods 244 Drink 245 Folk Music 245 Folk Medicines and Cures 248 The Oral Folk Tradition 248 Folk Cultural Regions of Eastern United States 249 The Passing of Folk Cultural Regionalism 250 Patterns of Popular Culture 251 National Uniformities and Globalization 252 The Shopping Mall 255 Outside the Mall 256 Diffusion Tracks 257 Regional Emphasis 257 Vernacular Regions 257 Summary 258 Key Words 262 For Review 262 Focus Follow-up 263 Selected References 263 PART Three Dynamic Patterns of the Space Economy 266 C H A P T E R Eight Livelihood and Economy: Primary Activities 269 Focus Preview 269 The Classification of Economic Activity and Economies 270 Categories of Activity 271 Types of Economic Systems 273 Primary Activities: Agriculture 273 Subsistence Agriculture 274 Extensive Subsistence Agriculture 276 Intensive Subsistence Systems 278 Urban Subsistence Farming 279 Costs of Territorial Extension 281 Intensification and the Green Revolution 282 Commercial Agriculture 285 Production Controls 285 A Model of Agricultural Location 286 Intensive Commercial Agriculture 288 Extensive Commercial Agriculture 288 Special Crops 292 Agriculture in Planned Economies 292 Primary Activities: Resource Exploitation 294 Resource Terminology 294 Fishing 295 Forestry 299 Fur Trapping and Trade 301 Mining and Quarrying 301 Metallic Minerals 302 Nonmetallic Minerals 302 Mineral Fuels 304 Trade in Primary Products 307 Summary 309 Key Words 310 For Review 310 Focus Follow-up 310 Selected References 311 C H A P T E R Nine Livelihood and Economy: From Blue Collar to Gold Collar 315 Focus Preview 315 Components of the Space Economy 316 Concepts and Controls 317 Secondary Activities: Manufacturing 318 Locational Decisions in Manufacturing 318 Principles of Location 319 Raw Materials 319 Power Supply 320 Labor 320 Market 320 Transportation 322 Transportation and Location 323 Industrial Location Theories 324 Least-Cost Theory 325 Locational Interdependence Theory 326 Proft-Maximization Approaches 327 Other Locational Considerations and Controls 327 Agglomeration Economies 328 Just-in-Time and Flexible Production 328 Comparative Advantage 329 Imposed Considerations 331 Transnational Corporations 331 World Manufacturing Patterns and Trends 333 Anglo America 333 Western and Central Europe 336 Eastern Europe 337 Eastern Asia 338 High-Tech Patterns 340 Tertiary and Beyond 343 Tertiary Services 344 Beyond Tertiary 345 Services in World Trade 346 Summary 349 Key Words 349 For Review 350 Focus Follow-up 350 Selected References 351 C H A P T E R Ten Patterns of Development and Change 353 Focus Preview 353 Development as a Cultural Variable 355 Dividing the Continuum: Definitions of Development 355 Explanations of Underdevelopment 357 The Core-Periphery Argument 358 Economic Measures of Development 359 The Diffusion of Technology 362 The Complex of Development 363 Gross National Income and PPP per Capita 364 Energy Consumption per Capita 365 Percentage of the Workforce Engaged in Agriculture 366 Landlessness 366 Poverty, Calories, and Nutrition 367 Composite Assessment of Economic Development 370 A Model for Economic Development 370 Noneconomic Measures of Development 371 Education 371 Public Services 373 Health 374 Aggregate Measures of Development and Well-Being 377 The Role of Women 379 Summary 384 Key Words 384 For Review 385 Focus Follow-up 385 Selected References 386 PART Four Landscapes of Functional Organization 388 C H A P T E R Eleven Urban Systems and Urban Structures 391 Focus Preview 391 The Urbanizing Century 392 Megacities and Merging Metropolises 392 Settlement Roots 397 The Nature of Cities 400 Some Definitions 400 The Location of Urban Settlements 401 The Functions of Cities 402 The Economic Base 402 Base Ratios 402 Systems of Urban Settlements 405 The Urban Hierarchy 405 Rank-Size and Primacy 406 World Cities 406 Urban Influence Zones 407 Central Places 407 Network Cities 410 Inside the City 411 The Competitive Bidding for Land 411 Land Values and Population Density 412 Models of Urban Land Use Structure 413 Social Areas of Cities 415 Social Status 416 Family Status 416 Ethnicity 417 Institutional Controls 418 Suburbanization in the United States 418 Central City Change 420 Constricted Central Cities 422 Expanding Central Cities 426 World Urban Diversity 427 The Anglo American City 427 The West European City 427 The East European City 430 Cities in the Developing World 431 The Asian City and African City 431 The Latin American City 435 Summary 437 Key Words 437 For Review 438 Focus Follow-up 438 Selected References 439 C H A P T E R Twelve The Political Ordering of Space 441 Focus Preview 441 National Political Systems 443 States, Nations, and Nation-States 443 The Evolution of the Modern State 445 Geographic Characteristics of States 446 Size 446 Shape 446 Location 448 Cores and Capitals 450 Boundaries: The Limits of the State 453 Natural and Geometric Boundaries 453 Boundaries Classified by Settlement 454 Boundary Disputes 454 Centripetal Forces: Promoting State Cohesion 456 Nationalism 456 Unifying Institutions 457 Organization and Administration 458 Transportation and Communication 459 Centrifugal Forces: Challenges to State Authority 459 The Projection of Power 461 Geopolitical Assessments 461 International Political Systems 463 Supranationalism 463 The United Nations and Its Agencies 464 Maritime Boundaries 465 An International Law of the Sea 465 Regional Alliances 467 Economic Alliances 468 Military and Political Alliances 470 Local and Regional Political Organization 471 The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem 471 The Fragmentation of Political Power 472 Summary 477 Key Words 478 For Review 478 Focus Follow-up 479 Selected References 479 PART Five Human Actions and Environmental Impacts 480 C H A P T E R Thirteen Human Impacts on Natural Systems 483 Focus Preview 483 Physical Environments and Cultural Impacts 484 Climates, Biomes, and Change 485 Global Warming 488 Air Pollution and Acid Rain 493 The Trouble with Ozone 494 Land Use and Land Cover 496 Tropical Deforestation 496 Desertification 499 Soil Erosion 501 Water Supply and Water Quality 503 Patterns of Availability 505 Water Use and Abuse 506 Garbage Heaps and Toxic Wastes 508 Solid Wastes and Rubbish 508 Landfill Disposal 509 Incineration 510 Ocean Dumping 511 Toxic Wastes 512 Radioactive Wastes 512 Exporting Waste 514 Prospects and Perspectives 516 Summary 517 Key Words 518 For Review 518 Focus Follow-up 518 Selected References 519 Appendices A: Map Projections 521 B: 2003 World Population Data 530 C: Anglo America Reference Glossary 539 Credits 553 Index 555
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Human geography.