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Contents List of Tables viii About the Authors ix Acknowledgements x List of Abbreviations xi 1 Introduction David J. Francis Defining and Conceptualising Civil Militias 1 Public-Private Continuum 3 Distinguishing the Context of Civil Militias 4 Characteristic Features of Civil Militias 5 Civil Militias: Security Menace in Africa? 15 Civil Militias, Occult Practice and the Spirit World: Military Psychology or 'Retreat from Modernity'? 17 Re-inventing Civil Society in Complex Political Emergencies 19 Challenges Posed by Civil Militias 20 Outline of Book 21 Notes 25 References 27 2 Militias as a Social Phenomenon: Towards a Theoretical Construction Gani Yoroms Introduction 30 Revisiting the Theory of Social Contract 30 Understanding the Phenomenon of Civil Militias 32 State-Centric Theory of Militias 34 Non-State Theory 36 Fluid Theory 38 Historical Development of the Militias 39 Emergence of Second Generation Civil Militias in Africa 44 Implications for National and Human Securities 46 Conclusion 47 Notes 48 References 48 3 The Kamajor Militia in Sierra Leone: Liberators or Nihilists? Joe Alie Introduction 51 Start of a Macabre Civil Conflict 52 Advent of Civil Defence Forces 54 The Kamajor Movement 55 Period of Expansion and Friction 58 The Military Coup of 25 May 1997 59 The Kamajors and their New Allies - ECOMOG 60 Kamajor-Civilian Relations 61 The Kamajors and the State 63 Conclusion 65 Notes 67 References 69 4 The Egbesu and Bakassi Boys: African Spiritism and the Mystical Re-traditionalisation of Security Kenneth Omeje Introduction 72 The Historical and Sociological Context of Security Re-traditionalisation 73 The Bakassi Boys: Substitutionary Security and Patterns of Re-traditionalisation 77 The Egbesu Boys: Adversarial Security and Mystical Re-traditionalisation 82 Occult Belief Systems and Politics in Africa 85 Conclusion 87 Notes 88 References 88 5 Civil Militias: Indonesia and Nigeria in Comparative Perspective Ruben Thorning Introduction 90 Conceptualising Civil Security in Weak States 91 The Emergence of Militialism in Nigeria & Indonesia: Background UN-NATO Co-deployment in Bosnia 97 A Free Market of Security: The Emergence of Informal Security Structures 101 The State: Orchestrating Violence 104 The Organisation of Public Security: Identity Politics, Fear and Opportunity 106 The Privatisation of Security and the Consequences for National and Human Security 108 The Paradox of the Security Business 110 Conclusion 111 NotesRefere 112 References 116 6 Civil Militias: Threats to National and Human Security in West Africa Istifanus Zabadi Introduction 119 Civil Militias, National and Human Security: A Conceptual Understanding 120 Why Civil Militias Emerge 126 The Impact of Civil Militias on National and Human Security 129 ECOWAS and the Challenge of Civil Militias 131 Conclusion 132 Notes 133 7 Counter-insurgents or Ethnic Vanguards? Civil Militia and State Violence in the Darfur Region, Western Sudan Usman Tar Introduction 134 Background: Heterogeneity, Civil Wars and Instability in Sudan 136 Civil Militias in Contemporary Sudan: Trends, Factors and Perverse Manifestations 138 Old Conflict; New Complex Emergency: Darfur as a Theatre of Conflict 141 The Western Rebellion and its Aftermaths 144 Counter-insurgents or Ethnic Vanguards? 148 Khartoum Conspiracy: the Government as a Patron and an Ally 149 The Composition, Structure and Operation of Janjaweed Militia 150 Prospects for Demobilisation and Peace 149 Conclusion 154 Notes 155 References 163 8 The 'Anti-Gang' Civil Militia in Cameroon and the Threat to National and Human Security Cage Banseka Introduction 166 A Historical Perspective 167 The Modus Operandi of the Anti -Gang Movements 176 Security Provided or Insecurity Assured? 179 Official or Governmental Response to the AGMs 182 The Fate and Future of the AGMs 188 Conclusion 189 Notes 192 References 192 9 Civil Militias and Militarisation of Society in the Horn of Africa Belachew Gebrewold Introduction 194 State, Security and Violence in the Horn of Africa 197 Intra-State Conflict and the Militarisation of Society in the Horn of Africa 205 Sudan 207 Somalia 210 Transboundary Arms Transfer and the Militarisation of Civilians in the Horn of Africa 214 Conclusion 216 References 216 10 Protracted Civil War, Civil Militias and Political Transition in Uganda since 1986 Byanubanga Rukooko Introduction 221 Conceptualising the Militia 221 NRM Guerilla Warfare and the Auxiliary Forces 223 Consolidation of NRM 224 Kalangala Action Plan (KAP) 226 Anti- Stock Theft Unit (ASTU) 227 Nyekundiire 229 Arrow Boys and Amuka (Rhino) Militia 231 Reserve Force 234 Emerging Issues 235 Conclusion 236 Notes 237 References 239 11 Mayi Mayi and Interahamwe Militias: Threats to Peace and Security in the Great Lake Region Mucharia Munene Introduction 240 Colonialism and the Menace of Civil Militias in the Congo 241 Cold War Politics, Anti-colonial Struggle and the Use of Militias 245 Interahamwe and Mayi Mayi Militias: Postmodern Colonialism and 'Africa's First World War' in the Congo 250 Conclusion 256 References 258 12 Civil Defence Forces and Challenges to Post-Conflict Security: International Experiences and Implications for Africa Jeremy Ginifer and Hooman Peimani Introduction 261 International experience of CDFs: Case studies 263 Emmergence/Constitutions of CDFs 264 CDF Negative Relations with Commuties and/or with Government Forces and Impacts upon Human Security 266 CDF Effectiveness as Security Providers 269 CDF Human Rights and International Human Law Violations 270 Detrimental Impact on Development 273 CDF and Post Conflict Issues 274 Post-conflict Challenges of CDFs in Africa 276 The importance of SSR and assimilation/regulation of CDFs 278 Opption for Reform 279 Reformulating Government Security Sector Representation Regionally 282 Conclusion 283 Notes 284 References 288 Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
National security -- Africa.
Militia movements -- Africa.
Civil war -- Africa.
Africa -- Politics and government -- 1960-.