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Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The language of coastal planning and management 1 1.2 Defining the Coastal Area 2 1.2.1 Biophysical Definitions of a Coastal Area 2 1.2.2 Policy Oriented Definitions of a Coastal Area 4 1.3 The Unique Characteristics of Coastal Areas 8 1.4 A Brief History of Coastal Management and Planning 9 1.4.1 Sustainability - the Dominant Paradigm in Coastal Planning and Management 14 1.5 Issues to Actions 20 1.6 Chapter Summary 21 2 Coastal management issues 22 2.1 Population growth and urbanization 25 2.2 Coastal use 28 2.2.1 Resource exploitation - fisheries, forestry, gas & oil, and mining 29 2.2.2 Infrastructure - transportation, ports, harbours, shoreline protection works and defence 32 2.2.3 Tourism and recreation 35 2.2.4 Conservation reserves and protection of biodiversity 37 2.3 Impacts of human use 38 2.3.1 Pollution - industrial, sewage and runoff 38 2.3.2 Coastal hazards and climate change 41 2.4 Administrative and legal issues 45 2.5 Summary - coastal conflict 46 3 Concepts, terminology and organization of coastal planning and management 48 3.1 Concepts of coastal planning and management 49 3.1.1 Rational, comprehensive planning theory 53 3.1.2 Values-based planning 55 3.1.3 Ecosystem-based management 58 3.1.4 Adaptive/learning management and planning 61 3.1.5 Systems theory and cybernetics 64 3.1.6 Environmentalism 67 3.1.7 Participation, consensus and conflict 69 3.1.8 Pragmatism 71 3.1.9 Section Summary 72 3.2 Coastal planning and management language 72 3.2.1 What is coastal planning, what is coastal management and what is the difference? 73 3.2.2 Placing an emphasis on 'integration' 75 3.2.3 Guiding statements for coastal management and planning 80 3.3 Organizing for coastal planning and management 83 3.3.1 Institutional and governmental arrangements 87 3.3.2 Linking government, the private sector and the community 100 3.3.3 Guiding statements for coastal programs 102 3.4 Evaluating and monitoring coastal management programs 109 3.5 Chapter summary 116 4 Major coastal management and planning techniques 119 4.1 Administrative coastal management and planning techniques 120 4.1.1 Policy and legislation 120 4.1.2 Guidelines 127 4.1.3 Zoning 129 4.1.4 Regulation and enforcement 136 4.2 Social coastal management and planning techniques 139 4.2.1 Customary (traditional) practices 140 4.2.2 Collaborative and community-based management 145 4.2.3 Capacity building 154 4.2.4 Recreation and tourism management 167 4.3 Technical approaches to coastal planning and management 176 4.3.1 Environmental impact assessment 177 4.3.2 Risk and hazard assessment and management 183 4.3.3 Landscape and visual resource analysis 189 4.3.4 Economic analysis 201 4.4 Chapter summary 212 5 Coastal management planning 215 5.1 Classifying coastal management plans 215 5.1.1 Coastal management plan focus 217 5.1.2 Statutory basis of coastal management plans 221 5.1.3 The requirements of coastal management plans 222 5.1.4 Degree of plan integration 224 5.2 Designing a coastal planning framework 226 5.2.1 Design considerations 226 5.2.2 Plan Monitoring and Evaluation 233 5.3 Integrated coastal management plans described by geographic coverage 235 5.3.1 International integrated plans 239 5.3.2 Whole of jurisdiction integrated plans 241 5.3.3 Regional scale integrated plans 243 5.3.4 Local area integrated plans 245 5.3.5 Site level integrated plans 247 5.4 Subject plans in coastal management 250 5.5 Coastal management plan production processes 252 5.5.1 Consensual-style coastal plan production processes 254 5.6 The implementation of coastal management plans 265 5.7 Chapter summary 269 6 Conclusions and future directions 270 7 Appendix 1 Some Definitions of the Coastal Zone for Planning and Management 276 7.1 Fixed Distance Definitions 276 7.2 Variable Distance Definitions 277 7.3 Definition according to use. 278 8 Boxes 281 8.1 Chapter 1 Boxes 281 8.2 Chapter 2 Boxes 285 8.3 Chapter 3 Boxes 302 8.4 Chapter 4 Boxes 340 8.5 Chapter 5 Boxes 384 9 References 455 Figure 1-1 Example 'Degrees of Coastalness' for a Sandy-beach Coast 4 Figure 1-2 The Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka as defined by the Sri Lankan Coast Conservation Act (Coast Conservation Department 1996) 5 Figure 1-3 The domains of sustainability (O'Riordan et al. 1998) 16 Figure 1-4 Sustainable and Unsustainable Approaches to Coastal Resource Use (Dutton et al. 1994) 17 Figure 2-1 Examples of Impacts on Coastal Systems in the Philippines adapted from (LGED, 1992 #3183 cited in Clark 1996; Milne et al. 2003) 25 Figure 2-2 Global Population Densities 2000 (CIESIN 2004) 26 Figure 2-3 Population Change in Coastal Mega-Cities 1960 - 2000 (based onUN Population Division 2004) 26 Figure 2-4 Aquaculture Ponds, South Sulawesi, Indonesia (credit: Reg Watson) 30 Figure 2-5 Container Port, Yokohama, Japan 33 Figure 2-6 Seagrass Damage from Recreational Boating, Florida (credit: Curtis Kruer) 37 Figure 2-7 Anchor Damage, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 37 Figure 2-8 Pollution Impacts on the World's Large Marine Ecosystems (GIWA 2004) 39 Figure 2-9 Coastal Landfill, Tonga 41 Figure 2-10 Erosion of Dunwich, United Kingdom 1886 - 1919 42 Figure 3-1 Rational (Comprehensive) Model of Planning and Decision Making (Smith 1993) 54 Figure 3-2 Indicative Above and Below the Surface Components of the Coastal Planning Iceberg (Kay 2000) 58 Figure 3-3 GESAMP policy cycle (GESAMP 1996) 63 Figure 3-4 A Simple Hierarchy of Direction Setting Statements for Coastal Planning and Management 81 Figure 3-5 Example National System of Coastal Management Governance Divided Into Vertical and Horizontal Components 89 Figure 3-6 Range of Orientation of Coastal Management Programs (Scura, 1993 #2550 adapted by White 1995) 98 Figure 3-7 Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation in Decision making Arnstein (1969) 101 Figure 3-8 Sulawesi Selatan Province (Indonesia) Coastal Planning System (Bangda, 1996) 104 Figure 3-9 Thames Estuary Management Plan Explanation of Guiding Statements and an Example (Thames Estuary Partnership 2003) 106 Figure 3-10 Plan Production Cycles (adapted from Hale 1996; Olsen et al. 1996) 110 Figure 4-1 Policy and Discretion in Guiding Decision Making (adapted from Mukhi et al. 1988) 121 Figure 4-2 Schematic Coastal Vulnerability Assessment Guidance Spectrum (from Kay et al. 1996) 127 Figure 4-3 The 'Biosphere' Model of Zoning Marine Protected Areas (Gubbay 1995) 134 Figure 4-4 Marine Management Workshop Participants, Seychelles 150 Figure 4-5 Framework for Developing a Community-Based Management Program (based on White et al. 1994) 153 Figure 4-6 Ideal and 'Real World' Views of the Interaction of Information Gathering, Impact Assessment and Policy Development for Decision Making (adapted from Kay et al. 1996) 162 Figure 4-7 Recreational Pressures, Green Island, Great Barrier Reef (credit: John DeCampo) 167 Figure 4-8 Green Island Beach Hire, Green Island, Great Barrier Reef (credit: John DeCampo) 168 Figure 4-9 Butler's Model of the Hypothetical Evolution of a Tourist Area (Butler, 1980 #2502 as adapted by Pearce 1989) 170 Figure 4-10 Tentative Beach Resort Model (adapted from Smith 1992) 175 Figure 4-11 Example Succession of Community Attitudes Towards Tourism (Doxey, 1975 #2534 cited in Mercer 1995) 175 Figure 4-12 The Risk Management Cycle (Soby et al. 1993) 186 Figure 4-13 The 'As Low as Reasonably Practicable' (ALARP) Approach to Risk Management Decision making (HMSO 1988; Gerrard 1995) 187 Figure 4-14 Relationship Between Landscape and Visual Values 190 Figure 4-15 Main Components of Landscape Management 195 Figure 4-16 Rationale for Economic Instruments in Mangrove Management (from Ruitenbeek 1991) 209 Figure 5-1 Coastal Management Plan Types According to Strategic or Operational Focus 217 Figure 5-2 Comparison of Statutory and Non-Statutory Plans Influencing Coastal Management in Western Australia and the United Kingdom (from Kay et al. 1995) 222 Figure 5-3 Components of Integrated Coastal Management Plans in the United Kingdom (Gubbay 1994) 225 Figure 5-4 Options for Coastal Planning Frameworks 227 Figure 5-5 Major Factors Influencing Coastal Planning Frameworks 228 Figure 5-6 The Components of Site Planning (Rubenstein 1987) 249 Figure 5-7a Generalised Site Planning Design Process and Figure 5-8b Concept Evolution (adapted from Schmidt 1996 after ) 249 Figure 5-8 General Steps in the Formulation of a Coastal Management Plan (Alder et al. 1997) 253 Figure 5-9 Typical Plan Production Process for Consensual-Style Coastal Management Plans (adapted from Alder et al. 1997) 255 Figure 5-10 Stakeholder Meeting for Take Bone Rate Marine Plan, Indonesia 258 Figure 5-11 Involving Children in Coastal Planning, Cocos Island 259 Figure 5-12 Interaction of the Major components in Implementing Management Plans 267 Table 1-1 Phases in the Development of Coastal Management (adapted from O'Riordan and Vellinga (1993)) 13 Table 2-1 Threats to coastal ecosystems and key drivers (Agardy et al. in press) 24 Table 2-2 Potential impacts of climate change and sea-level rise on coastal systems (McLean et al. 2001) 44 Table 3-1 Environmental World views (from Pearce 1993 adapted by ) 68 Table 3-2 Components of Critical Realism (from Huckle et al. 2001) 69 Table 3-3 Changing Coastal Planning Practices (King 1996) 72 Table 3-4 Dimensions of Policy Integration (from Cicin-Sain 1993 following ) 78 Table 3-5 Current Membership of Two Australian State Government Coastal Councils Compared to the California Coastal Commission (updated from \Kay, 1997 #2346] 94 Table 3-6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centralism and Localism in Coastal Management (adapted from Ketchum 1972)) 99 Table 3-7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formalising Organizational Objectives (adapted from \Steers (1985)) 103 Table 3-8 Forms of Program Evaluation (adapted from \Owen, 1999 #3414:54] 113 Table 4-1 Management Techniques Used in the Sri Lankan Coastal Management Strategy (White et al. 1994; Coast Conservation Department 1996) 123 Table 4-2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Implied Policy-Making in Coastal Management 125 Table 4-3 Coastal Management Tools Linked With Zoning 135 Table 4-4 Permitted Activities and Examples on the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Alder 1993) 137 Table 4-5 Characteristics of Collaborative and Community-Based Management (based on Jentoft 1989) 149 Table 4-6 Example Components of a Capacity Building Program 155 Table 4-7 Marketing Activities and Their Application Coastal Communication Programs (based on Armstrong 1986)) 159 Table 4-8 Ten Most Important Information Needs for Australian Coastal Managers (Brown 1995) 163 Table 4-9 Some Measures to Control the Character of Intensity of Recreational Use to Meet Desired Management Objectives in Coastal Parks (Schmidt 1996) 173 Table 4-10 Definitions of the Stages of the Risk Management Cycle (adapted from Gerrard, 1995 #1410 and Soby et al. 1993) 185 Table 4-11 Example Options and Measures for Coastal Erosion Hazard Management (adapted from Kay et al. 1994). 188 Table 4-12 Examples of Uses and Environmental Functions of Mangroves (from Ruitenbeek 1991; Ruitenbeek 1994) 204 Table 4-13 Categories of Economic Value (from Grigalunas et al. 1995) 205 Table 4-14 Economic Valuation Definitions (from Lipton et al. 1995) 206 Table 4-15 Scales of Benefit-Cost Analysis (adapted from Ruitenbeek 1991) 209 Table 4-16 The Main Groups of Economic Instruments and Examples for Mangrove Management (adapted from Ruitenbeek 1991 and ) 210 Table 4-17 Recommended Steps to Developing a Charging System to Assist Mangrove Management in Indonesia (Ruitenbeek 1991) 212 Table 5-1 Coastal Management Plan Classification Methods and Plan Types 216 Table 5-2 Example Coverages of Different Scales of Coastal Plans 230 Table 5-3 Scales of Coastal Management Plans 237 Table 5-4 The Hierarchy and Characteristics of Western Australian Coastal Management Plans (WAPC 2003) 238 Table 5-5 Example Subject Plans used for Coastal Management 252 Table 5-6 Matrix of Community Participation Techniques in the Planning Process (Department of Planning and Urban Development 1993) 261 Table 7-1 Example Fixed Definition Boundaries of the Coastal Zone (Sorensen et al. 1990; NSW Government 1997) 277 Box 1-1 State of Delaware Coastal Zone Definitions 7 Box 1-2 Coastal Definitions used in the Queensland Coastal Protection and Management Act (1995) 7 Box 1-3 Urban Sustainability Issues (quoted from Allen et al. 2002:16) 16 Box 2-1 Issues and Topics Addressed by the Thames Estuary Management Plan 25 Box 2-2 Coastal Issues in Florida and California 27 Box 2-3 Coastal Pressures in Sulawesi Selatan province, Indonesia 27 Box 2-4 Coastal Urban Expansion Issues North of Perth, Western Australia 28 Box 2-5 Mangrove Conversion to Prawn Aquaculture Issues - South Sulawesi, Indonesia 31 Box 2-6 Issues in the Port of Vancouver 33 Box 2-7 Pollution of Urban Coastal Waters - the Case of Jakarta, Indonesia 40 Box 2-8 Waste Disposal on a Coral Atoll - Tonga 41 Box 2-9 Bangladesh Cyclone Hazards (Kausher et al. 1996) 42 Box 3-1 The Problems of Defining Planning Theory (Campbell et al. 1996; Campbell et al. 2002) 51 Box 3-2 Cooperative ecosystem management across the Canada-US border 60 Box 3-3 The Application of Soft System Methodology in the Malta Coastal Area Management Planning Process 67 Box 3-4 The Consensus Building Process used in the Thames Estuary Management Plan (Kennedy, 1996b) 71 Box 3-5 The Meaning of 'Integration' in Coastal Management 77 Box 3-6 Concepts of Integration in Coastal Management 77 Box 3-7 Forces supporting coastal management in the Philippines 80 Box 3-8 Two Examples of the Concepts of Coastal Management (adapted from World Bank 1993; European Union 2002) 84 Box 3-9 The growth in coastal programs worldwide (Sorensen 1993; Sorensen 1997; Hildebrand et al. 2001; Sorensen 2002) 86 Box 3-10 Example Government Organizational Structure - Indonesia (updated from Sloan et al. 1994) 90 Box 3-11 Governance Arrangements for the Sri Lankan Coastal Management Program 96 Box 3-12 Legislative and Networked Coastal Management Program Structure in the United States (updated from Fisk 1996) 96 Box 3-13 Coastal Zone Management Decision Making Framework in Samoa 97 Box 3-14 The Special Area Management Framework used in Sri Lanka 100 Box 3-15 Coastal Management and the Commercial Sector - the Case of the Thames Estuary (Kennedy 1996; Stratford 2004) 101 Box 3-16 Example Guiding Principles for Coastal Management Programs 103 Box 3-17 Examples of Overall Coastal Management Goals 103 Box 3-18 Central Coast (Western Australia) Regional Strategy Purpose and Founding Principles (Western Australian Planning Commission, 1996a) 104 Box 3-19 Example of Operative and Operational Objectives for Coastal Management Programs 106 Box 3-20 Timeline in the development of an evaluation framework for activities under the US Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) (adapted from Shea 2003) 112 Box 3-21 Extract of Preliminary US Ocean Commission Report (U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy 2004) 115 Box 3-22 Program Evaluation Stages (Owen et al. 1999) 115 Box 4-1 Expressed Policies for Coastal Hazard Management in New Zealand 123 Box 4-2 European Union ICZM Recommendation 129 Box 4-3 The Broadscale Zoning Scheme of the Australian Great Barrier Reef 135 Box 4-4 Reef Activities Zoning Plan of Green Island, Great Barrier Reef (Zigterman et al. 1993) 135 Box 4-5 Enforcement of a Marine Reserve in the Philippines 138 Box 4-6 Enforcement Program of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 139 Box 4-7 Sawen Traditional Resource Management in Indonesia 142 Box 4-8 Community-based Fisheries Management in the Philippines 153 Box 4-9 Changing Awareness and Attitudes of Cairns (Australia) Residents Toward Management of the Cairns Section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 157 Box 4-10 Indonesian Communication Strategies for Coastal Management 158 Box 4-11 Example Cartoon Books for Communicating Impacts of Coastal Dynamite Fishing 158 Box 4-12 The OneCoast Knowledge Sharing Initiative 166 Box 4-13 The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Used for National Park Planning in the South Coast Area of Western Australia (adapted from CALM 1991 and ) 173 Box 4-14 Tourism Growth and Management of the Red Sea Coast 176 Box 4-15 Linking EIA and Strategic Planning on the Great Barrier Reef 181 Box 4-16 Cyclone Risk Management in Bangladesh (updated from Kausher et al. 1994; Kausher et al. 1996) 184 Box 4-17 The Management Risks for the Transportation of Hazardous Goods in UK Ports (adapted from Gavaghan 1990) 185 Box 4-18 Terminology in Landscape and Visual Assessment 190 Box 4-19 Main Components of Assessment of Values (Cleary, 1997). 195 Box 4-20 Case Study - Community input into the process 199 Box 4-21 Wind farms and landscape planning 200 Box 4-22 Characteristics of Economic Value (from Lipton et al 1995) 205 Box 4-23 Steps in Benefit-cost Analyses (adapted from Lipton et al. 1995) 208 Box 4-24 Benefit-Cost Analysis Applied to the Management of Indonesian Coral Reefs (after Cesar 1996; Cesar et al. 1997) 209 Box 4-25 Example of Using the Control of Subsidies in Coastal Zone Management: The USA Coastal Barrier Resource Act (CBRA). 210 Box 5-1 Project and Program Taxonomy for the Coastal Zone Asia Pacific Database 216 Box 5-2 Consultation Requirements for Zoning Plans in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia 223 Box 5-3 Coastal management planning certification in the Philippines 229 Box 5-4 Integrated Coastal Planning Program of a Hypothetical Coastal Nation 231 Box 5-5 Monitoring and evaluation activities to support integrated coastal management planning in the Philippines 235 Box 5-6 Lessons learned from the Mediterranean Action Plan Coastal Area Management Programme 235 Box 5-7 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 239 Box 5-8 The Regional Seas Programme 240 Box 5-9 The East Africa Regional Seas Programme 240 Box 5-10 National Coastal Planning in New Zealand 242 Box 5-11 Indonesia National MREP 242 Box 5-12 National Coastal Planning in Sri Lanka 243 Box 5-13 Central Coast Regional Strategy (Western Australia) - Planning Context 245 Box 5-14 Regional Coastal Planning - Sulawesi Selatan Province Indonesia 245 Box 5-15 Regional Coastal Planning in New Zealand 245 Box 5-16 The Strymonikos, Greece European Union ICZM Demonstration Project 245 Box 5-17 Malta Coastal Area Management Plan 245 Box 5-18 Sri Lanka Special Area Management Plan 247 Box 5-19 Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia Local Integrated Coastal Planning 247 Box 5-20 Coastal Planning - Central Coast Canada 247 Box 5-21 Dune Rehabilitation Planning, Warnbro, Western Australia 250 Box 5-22 Levels of Tourism Plans for Coastal Management 252 Box 5-23 The challenge of transforming coastal management: The South African experience (Glavovic 2004) 255 Box 5-24 The General Steps in the Formulation of a Consensual-Style Integrated Coastal Management Plan 255 Box 5-25 Thames Estuary Management Plan Production Process (Kennedy 1996) 256 Box 5-26 Four Years in the Life of Fanga'uta Lagoon, Tonga (Kaly et al. 2004) 256 Box 5-27 Typical Membership and Decision-Making Roles of Local Integrated Coastal Plan Steering Committees 257 Box 5-28 Guiding Principles for Public Participation for Large Infrastructure Projects in Western Australia (Department of Resources Development 1994) 258 Box 5-29 A General Model of Plan Implementation 268 Box 5-30 Moving from Planning to Implementation for the Thames Estuary Management Plan (Kennedy 1996) 268 Box 5-31 Implementing Coastal Management Planning in Indonesia 269 Box 5-32 Lessons learned from Philippines coastal planning projects 270
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Coastal zone management.